The radiograph

Photographic principles

Objectives
To

examine how invisible x-ray image

has to be recorded and converted
into a visible form
To examine in detail the photographic
effect of radiation on sensitive
emulsion

The photographic effect

This is the principle of traditional method of

recording the invisible x-ray image
It uses photo-sensitive materials (some
chemical compounds) which undergo subtle
structural changes when exposed to
electromagnetic radiations such as visible
light, ultraviolet radiation or x-rays.
These changes are not immediately visible,
but,
They are associated with an alteration in the
chemical behaviour of the substance.

The exposed materials respond differently

in certain chemical reactions.
By careful chemical processing, it is
possible to differentiate between exposed
and unexposed materials, producing a
visible difference between them.
This creates a visible image.
The effect on chemical nature of material is
known as Photographic effect of radiation
The chemical processing necessary to
make invisible changes visible is called
photographic development

Photosensitive materials
In

photography photosensitive
materials used are Silver halides.
Radiography is a specialized
application of the photographic
process
Therefore in radiography too silver
halides are used as photosensitive
material to record the images

Silver halides
Are

a group of chemical compounds

consisting of atoms of element silver
combined with atoms of halogen
elements

Silver bromide
Silver iodide
Silver chloride

They are sensitive to light and x-rays

Silver bromide is commonly used

Physical properties of silver

halides
White or pale-yellow crystalline salts
similar in appearance to common salt
The links between silver and halogen
atoms are ionic bonds.
The electrical forces between
positively charged silver ions and
negatively charged halide ions fix the
positions of the ions in a regular threedimensional crystal structure or lattice

Crystal /lattice of AgX

Chemical properties of Silver

halide

Pure silver halide crystals are relatively

stable and do not suffer chemical
breakdown
But under certain conditions it is possible to
convert silver ions to atoms of metallic
silver by donating electrons
The agents that supply electrons for this
process are called reducing agents.
The action is chemical reduction of silver
halide to silver
Chemical reduction takes place rapidly on
Silver halide crystals that have been
exposed to radiation than those are not
This is the key feature of photographic
processing

Effects of exposure on silver

halide
X-ray
photo
n

X-ray
photo
n

Silver
ion

Bromin
e ion

Silver halide
lattice

Sensitivity
spec
Some x-ray
photons passes
through without
action

Some photons give

its energy to a
bromine ion and emit
an electron

 Some

X-ray photons pass through

without any interaction
Some photons interact with bromine
ions and release an electron
The electron moves around the
crystal
In a short time it loges in a low
energy electron trap near the surface
of the crystal
This low energy electron trap is called
a sensitivity spec

Sensitivity specs are formed by

deliberate introduction of impurities
into the crystal during its manufacture
As it collects more and more electrons
sensitivity specs acquire a negative
charge
When this negative charge becomes
strong enough some positively charge
silver ions are drawn towards it.
As they come the silver ions each gain
an electron to become a neutral silver
atom (metalic silver)

Significance of formation of metallic

silver
In normal circumstances only a few hundreds
of silver atoms are formed
It is inadequate to produce a visible change
in the crystal
But the tiny collection of silver atoms
renders the crystal much more vulnerable
than unexposed crystals to attack by the
reducing agent in photographic developer.
The sensitivity spec now become a
development centre in exposed crystals
enabling them to be reduced completely to
metallic silver during the development
process

The latent image

The

existence on a film of numbers of

silver halide crystals possessing
development centres is said to
constitute a latent image.
A latent image is an invisible image
formed on a film as a result of exposure
to radiation and which may be made
visible by photographic development
(This explanation of latent image
formation is based on the Gerney-Mott
theory)

Differences between silver halide

& metallic silver
Silver halide
Can be converted to
soluble compounds by
fixing agents
Sensitive to light
Image containing
traces of silver halide
undergo changes
when exposed to light
terfore, Image
containing silver
halide is not permanet

Metallic silver
Unaffected by fixing
agents
Not sensitive to light
Image containing only
metallic silver is
permanent
Opaque to light and is
visible as darkened
area against a light
background

Photographic emulsion
Photosensitive

layer containing silver

halide suspended in gelatin (on an x-ray
film) is called a photographic emulsion
It is coated on a transparent base

Properties of gelatin
Exists

either as a liquid or as a solid jelly

Can be transformed from one state to
the other

Functions of gelatin as the emulsion

binder

Acts as the medium for formation of silver

halide crystals during chemical production
Maintains the uniform distribution of silver
halide in the liquid emulsion
Does not react chemically with silver
halides
It allows the film base to be coated evenly
with warm liquid emulsion, which is then
chilled and allowed to set and dried
In solid state , it can be wetted and then
allows penetration by the chemical agents.
Holds firmly in position the metallic silver
particles
Provides a transparent medium, enabling
viewing of the image

Production of photographic
emulsion

Silver halide (bromide) is the product of

chemical reaction between silver nitrate and
an alkali halide (potassium bromide)
The production of emulsion and manufacture
of x-ray film are highly complex process
The entire procedure is carried out in
conditions of absolute cleanliness, with
temperature and humidity closely controlled,
all light excluded in a dust free environment.
Rigorous quality control is maintained

Steps in production
1.

2.

Solutions of silver nitrate and potassium

bromide (and other halides) are added at
controlled rates and in measured
quantities to liquid gelatin.
On mixing, it produces potassium nitrate
(in solution) and a precipitate of tiny
insoluble crystals or grains of silver
bromide dispersed uniformly through the
gelatin
(the rate of mixing governs the film
characteristics)

3.

(If mix rapidly all the grains produced

will be of roughly equal size narrow
grain size distribution. It produces
high contrast characteristics.)
(if mixed slowly the grains produced
early will grow larger than those
produced later. This results in a wide
grain size distribution and lower
contrast characteristics.)
Unwanted potassium nitrate is
removed by allowing it to set,
shredding it and washing in water

4.

5.

The gel is re-liquified and repeatedly

heated and cooled (ripening &
digestion) to grow in size and to allow
sensitivity specs to form. The size of
grains determines the speed of the
emulsion.
Finally, prior to coating onto the film
base, other agents are added. E.g.;
sensitizers
antifrothing agents
plasticizers, hardeners, wetting agents,
antifoggants, bacterizides, fungicides

The coating process

The liquid emulsion is coated onto a

transparent polyester base (film)
To aid adhesion the base is pre-coated with a
thin subbing layer (substratum)
Constant thickness emulsion should be
maintained
Once the liquid emulsion has been applied it
is allowed to set firmly
Then the thin protective supercoat of pure
gelatin is applied
Usually for x-ray films the emulsion is coated
on both sides of the base
Coating is a continuous process and the
completed product is wound onto large rolls
Finally it is cut into different sizes and packed

Light sensitive & x-ray

sensitive emulsions
There are two types of films
according to the exposure conditions

Films exposed to light emitted from

intensifying screens or cathode ray
tubes or image intensifiers

Films exposed solely to direct x-radiation

Light - sensitive films

(All films are sensitive to light. This term refers to
the films exposed with light). They are
constructed to obtain maximum absorption of
light photons. This is achieved by,
1. Close packing of silver halide grains
2. Increasing the size of the halide grains
3. Increasing the thickness of the emulsion layer
4. Modifying the shape of the halide grains
(Methods 2 & 3 has limitations producing
graininess and reducing resolution)

Light - sensitive films

There are two types
Duplitized films
Single-coated (single sided) films

Duplitized films

Emulsion is coated on both sides of the base

Has the similar benefit as gained by
increasing the emulsion thickness
Used with two intensifying screens
Advantages are:
increased sensitivity
Increased image contrast

Disadvantages are:

loss of sharpness due to cross over effect

significant parallax effect
higher cost

Single-coated (single sided)

emulsion films
Emulsion

is coated on one side of the

base
Used with one intensifying screen
Small notch is cut on one edge to aid
identification of the emulsion side
Disadvantages associated with
duplitized emulsion is eliminated by
using single emulsion

Spectral sensitivity

The absorption of lights by the emulsion is

different for various colours in the spectrum.
This is referred to as spectral sensitivity
Normal silver bromide emulsion is more
sensitive (absorb readily) to blue, violet &
ultra violet light.
They are known as monochromatic emulsions
The sensitivity can be changed and extended
by using sensitizers. orthochromatic &
panchromatic

Effect of x-rays on screen type

film

The sensitivity of screen type film to x-rays

is minimal
Can be seen by a test
cover one half of the film with a black
paper on either side.
Load it into a cassette
Give a suitable exposure
Process the film
Less than 5% of the image density is
attributable to the direct exposure to x-rays

Other types of light sensitive

film
Films

to be exposed with the light

emitted (image) from a Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT) screen
Fluorographic films recording image
on image intensifier output phosphor
Laser imager films

X-ray sensitive (direct

exposure) films
Image

is produced direct exposure of

the film to x-rays only
Sensitivity is increased by

Duplitized emulsion
Increased emulsion thickness
Using sensitizers

Used

in

dental radiography
Radiation monitoring film badge

END
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