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Chapter 3
Structure and Properties of
Ionic and Covalent
Compounds

Denniston
Topping
Caret
5th Edition

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Chemical bond - the force of attraction
between any two atoms in a compound
This attractive force overcomes the
repulsion of the positively charged nuclei of
the two atoms participating in the bond
Interactions involving valence electrons are
responsible for the chemical bond

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Lewis Symbols
Lewis symbol (Lewis structure) - a way to
represent atoms using the element symbol
and valence electrons as dots
As only valence electrons participate in
bonding, this makes it much easier to work
with the octet rule
The number of dots used corresponds
directly to the number of valence electrons
located in the outermost shell of the atoms
of the element

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Lewis Symbols
Each side of the symbol represents an atomic
orbital, which may hold up to two electrons
Using Lewis symbols
Place one dot on each side until there are four dots around
the symbol
Now add a second dot to each side in turn
The number of valence electrons limits the number of
dots placed
Each unpaired dot (unpaired electron of the valence shell)
is available to form a chemical bond

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Lewis Dot Symbols for

Representative Elements

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Principal Types of Chemical Bonds:

Ionic and Covalent
Ionic bond - a transfer of one or more
electrons from one atom to another
Forms attractions due to the opposite charges of
the atoms

Covalent bond - attractive force due to the

sharing of electrons between atoms
Some bonds have characteristics of both
types and not easily identified as one or the
other

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Ionic Bonding
Representative elements form ions that
obey the octet rule
Ions of opposite charge attract each other
creating the ionic bond
When electrons are lost by a metal and
electrons are gained by a nonmetal
Each atom achieves a Noble Gas
configuration
2 ions are formed; a cation and anion, which
are attracted to each other

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Ionic Bonding
Consider the formation of
NaCl
Na + Cl NaCl
Sodium has a low
ionization energy it
readily loses this
electron
Na Na+ + eWhen sodium loses the
electron, it gains the
Ne configuration

Chlorine has a high

electron affinity
When chlorine gains
an electron, it gains
the Ar configuration

..
: Cl e
..

..

:
: Cl
..

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Essential Features of Ionic Bonding

Atoms with low I.E. and low E.A. tend to form
positive ions
Atoms with high I.E. and high E.A. tend to form
negative ions
Ion formation takes place by electron transfer
The ions are held together by the electrostatic
force of the opposite charges
Reactions between metals and nonmetals
(representative elements) tend to be ionic

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Ion Arrangement in a Crystal

As a sodium atom loses one electron, it becomes a
smaller sodium ion
When a chlorine atom gains that electron, it
becomes a larger chloride ion
Attraction of the Na cation with the Cl anion
forms NaCl ion pairs that aggregate into a crystal

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Covalent Bonding
Lets look at the formation of H2:
H + H H2
Each hydrogen has one electron in its valance shell
If it were an ionic bond it would look like this:

H both
H hydrogen
H atoms
H : have an equal
However,
tendency to gain or lose electrons
Electron transfer from one H to another usually will
not occur under normal conditions

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Instead, each atom attains a noble gas

configuration by sharing electrons

H H H :H
Each hydrogen
atom now has two
electrons around it
and attained a He
configuration

The shared
electron
pair is called a
Covalent Bond

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Covalent Bonding in Hydrogen

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Features of Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds form between atoms with
similar tendencies to gain or lose electrons
Compounds containing covalent bonds are
called covalent compounds or molecules
The diatomic elements have completely
covalent bonds (totally equal sharing)
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

.. ..
.. ..
: F F : : F : F :
.. ..
.. ..

Each fluorine is
surrounded by 8
electrons Ne
configuration

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Examples of Covalent Bonding

..
..
2H O H : O : H
..
..
2e from 2H
6e from O

2e for H
8e for O

H
.
..
4H C H : C : H

H
4e from 4H
4e from C

2e for H
8e for C

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Polar Covalent Bonding and

Electronegativity
The Polar Covalent Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of
electrons
Covalent bonding involves the sharing of
electrons
Polar covalent bonding - bonds made up
of unequally shared electron pairs

3.1 Chemical Bonding

somewhat positively charged

somewhat negatively charged

..
..
H F: H : F:

These two
electrons are
not shared equally
The electrons spend more time with fluorine
This sets up a polar covalent bond
A truly covalent bond can only occur when
both atoms are identical

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Polar Covalent Bonding in Water

Oxygen is electron rich = Hydrogen is electron
deficient = +
This results in unequal
sharing of electrons in the
pairs = polar covalent bonds
Water has 2 covalent bonds

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Electronegativity
Electronegativity - a measure of the
ability of an atom to attract electrons in a
chemical bond
Elements with high electronegativity have
a greater ability to attract electrons than do
elements with low electronegativity
Consider the covalent bond as competition
for electrons between 2 positive centers
The difference in electronegativity determines
the extent of bond polarity

 The most electronegative elements are found in the upper right

corner of the periodic table
The least electronegative elements are found in the lower left
corner of the periodic table

electronegativity increases

electronegativity increases

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Electronegativities of Selected
Elements

3.1 Chemical Bonding

Electronegativity Calculations
The greater the difference in electronegativity
between two atoms, the greater the polarity of
their bond
Which would be more polar, a H-F bond or H-Cl
bond?
H-F 4.0 - 2.1 = 1.9
H-Cl 3.0 - 2.1 = 0.9
The HF bond is more polar than the HCl bond

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Writing Formulas of Compounds
Nomenclature - the assignment of a correct
and unambiguous name to each and every
chemical compound
Two naming systems:
ionic compounds
covalent compounds

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Formulas of Compounds
A formula is the representation of the
fundamental compound using chemical
symbols and numerical subscripts
The formula identifies the number and type
of the various atoms that make up the
compound unit
The number of like atoms in the unit is
shown by the use of a subscript
Presence of only one atom is understood
when no subscript is present

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Ionic Compounds
Metals and nonmetals usually react to form
ionic compounds
The metals are cations and the nonmetals
are anions
The cations and anions arrange themselves
in a regular three-dimensional repeating
array called a crystal lattice
Formula of an ionic compound is the
smallest whole-number ratio of ions in the
substance

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds

from the Identities of the Component Ions
Determine the charge of each ion
Metals have a charge equal to group number
Nonmetals have a charge equal to the group
number minus eight

Cations and anions must combine to give a

formula with a net charge of zero
It must have the same number of positive
charges as negative charges

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Predict Formulas
Predict the formula of the ionic compounds
formed from combining ions of the
following pairs of elements:
1. sodium and oxygen
2. lithium and bromine
3. aluminum and oxygen
4. barium and fluorine

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Writing Names of Ionic Compounds

from the Formula of the Compound
Name the cation followed by the name2
of the anion
A positive ion retains the name of the
element; change the anion suffix to
-ide

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Writing Names of Ionic Compounds

from the Formula of the Compound

If the cation of an element has several ions of

different charges (as with transition metals) use a
Roman numeral following the metal name
Roman numerals give the charge of the metal

Examples:

FeCl3 is iron(III) chloride

FeCl2 is iron(II) chloride

CuO is copper(II) oxide

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Common Nomenclature System

Use -ic to indicate the higher of the
charges that ion might have
Use -ous to indicate the lower of the
charges that ion might have
Examples:
FeCl2 is ferrous chloride
FeCl3 is ferric chloride

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Stock and Common Names for
Iron and Copper Ions

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Common Monatomic Cations

and Anions

Monatomic ions - ions consisting of a

single charged atom

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions - ions composed of 2 or
more atoms bonded together with an
overall positive or negative charge
Within the ion itself, the atoms are bonded
using covalent bonds
The positive and negative ions will be
bonded to each other with ionic bonds

Examples:
NH4+ ammonium ion
SO42- sulfate ion

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Common Polyatomic Cations and
Anions

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Name These Compounds

1. NH4Cl
2. BaSO4
3. Fe(NO3)3
4. CuHCO3
5. Ca(OH)2

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds

From the Name of the Compound
Determine the charge of each ion
Write the formula so that the resulting
compound is neutral
Example:
Barium chloride:
Barium is +2, Chloride is -1
Formula is BaCl2

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Determine the Formulas From

Names
Write the formula for the following ionic
compounds:
1. sodium sulfate
2. ammonium sulfide
3. magnesium phosphate
4. chromium(II) sulfate

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds are typically formed
from nonmetals
Molecules - compounds characterized by
covalent bonding
Not a part of a massive three-dimensional
crystal structure
Exist as discrete molecules in the solid, liquid,
and gas states

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Naming Covalent Compounds

1. The names of the elements are written
in the order in which they appear in
the formula
2. A prefix indicates the number of each
kind of atom

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Naming Covalent Compounds

3. If only one atom of a particular element is
present in the molecule, the prefix mono- is
usually omitted from the first element
Example: CO is carbon monoxide

4. The stem of the name of the last element is

used with the suffix ide
5. The final vowel in a prefix is often dropped
before a vowel in the stem name

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Name These Covalent Compounds

1. SiO2
2. N2O5
3. CCl4
4. IF7

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Writing Formulas of Covalent

Compounds
Use the prefixes in the names to determine the2
subscripts for the elements
Examples:
nitrogen trichloride
NCl3
diphosphorus pentoxide
P 2 O5
Some common names that are used:
H2O
NH3

water
ammonia

C2H5OH ethanol
C6H12O6 glucose

Writing Formulas of Compounds

3.2 Naming Compounds and

Provide Formulas for These

Covalent Compounds
1. nitrogen monoxide
2. dinitrogen tetroxide
3. diphosphorus pentoxide
4. nitrogen trifluoride

3.3 Properties of Ionic and

Covalent Compounds
Physical State
Ionic compounds are usually solids at room
temperature
Covalent compounds can be solids, liquids, and
gases

Melting and Boiling Points

Melting point - the temperature at which a
solid is converted to a liquid
Boiling point - the temperature at which a
liquid is converted to a gas

3.3 Properties of Ionic and

Covalent Compounds

Physical Properties
Melting and Boiling Points
Ionic compounds have much higher melting points
and boiling points than covalent compounds
A large amount of energy is required to break the
electrostatic attractions between ions
Ionic compounds typically melt at several hundred
degrees Celsius

Structure of Compounds in the Solid State

Ionic compounds are crystalline
Covalent compounds are crystalline or amorphous
having no regular structure

3.3 Properties of Ionic and

Covalent Compounds

Physical Properties
Solutions of Ionic and Covalent
Compounds
Ionic compounds often dissolve in water,
where they dissociate - form positive and
negative ions in solution
Electrolytes - ions present in solution
allowing the solution to conduct electricity
Covalent solids usually do not dissociate and
do not conduct electricity - nonelectrolytes

Comparison of Ionic vs. Covalent

Compounds
Ionic

Covalent

Composed of

Metal + nonmetal 2 nonmetals

Electrons

Transferred

Shared

Physical state

Solid / crystal

Any / crystal
OR amorphous

Dissociation

Yes, electrolytes

No,
nonelectrolytes

Boiling/Melting High

Low

3.4 Drawing Lewis Structures on

Molecules and Polyatomic Ions
Lewis Structure Guidelines
1. Use chemical symbols for the various
elements to write the skeletal structure of
the compound

The least electronegative atom will be placed in

the central position
Hydrogen and halogens occupy terminal
positions
Carbon often forms chains of carbon-carbon
covalent bonds

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structure Guidelines

2. Determine the number of valence
electrons associated with each atom in
the compound
Combine these valence electrons to
determine the total number of valence
electrons in the compound
Polyatomic cations, subtract one electron for
every positive charge
Polyatomic anions, add one electron for
every negative charge

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structure Guidelines

3. Connect the central atom to each of the
surrounding atoms using electron pairs
Next, complete octets of all the atoms
bonded to the central atom
Hydrogen needs only two electrons
Electrons not involved in bonding are
represented as lone pairs
Total number of electrons in the structure
must equal the number of valence electrons
in step 2

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structure Guidelines

4. Count the number of electrons you have
and compare to the number you used

If they are the same, you are finished

If you used more electrons than you have,
add a bond for every two too many you used
Then, give every atom an octet
If you used less electrons than you have.see
later exceptions to the octet rule

5. Recheck that all atoms have the octet rule

satisfied and that the total number of
valance electrons are used

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Drawing Lewis Structures of

Covalent Compounds
Draw the Lewis structure of carbon dioxide, CO2

Draw a skeletal structure of the molecule

1.

Arrange the atoms in their most probable order

C-O-O
2.
3.
4.

and/or

O-C-O

Find the electronegativity of O=3.5 & C=2.5

Place the least electronegative atom as the central
atom, here carbon is the central atom
Result is the O-C-O structure from above

5. Find the number of valence electrons for each

atom and the total for the compound
1 C atom x 4 valence electrons = 4 e 2 O atoms x 6 valence electrons = 12 e 16 e- total

6. Use electron pairs to connect the C to each O with

a single bond

: :

O:C:O
7. Place electron pairs around the atoms
:O:C:O:

: :

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Drawing Lewis Structures

This satisfies the rule for the O atoms, but not for C

8.

Redistribute the electrons moving 2 e - from each O,

placing them between C:O

: :

: :

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Drawing Lewis Structures of

Covalent Compounds
C::O::C

9.

In this structure, the octet rule is satisfied

This is the most probable structure
Four electrons are between C and O
These electrons are share in covalent bonds
Four electrons in this arrangement signify a double
bond

10. Recheck the electron distribution

8 electron pairs = 16 valence electrons, number
counted at start
8 electrons around each atom, octet rule satisfied

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structures Practice

Using the guidelines presented, write Lewis structures
for the following:
1. H2O
2. NH3
3. CO2
4. NH4+
5. CO326. N2

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structures of
Polyatomic Ions

Prepare Lewis structures of polyatomic

ions as for neutral compounds, except:
The charge on the ion must be
accounted for when computing the
total number of valence electrons

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structure of
Polyatomic Cations
Draw the Lewis structure of ammonium ion, NH4+

Draw a skeletal structure of the molecule

1.
2.

Ammonium has this structure and charge:

The total number of valence electrons is determined by
subtracting one electron for each unit of positive
charge

1 N atom x 5 valence electrons = 5 e4 H atoms x 1 valence electron = 4 e- 1 electron for +1 charge

= -1 e8 e- total

Distribute these 8 e- around the skeletal structure

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structure of Polyatomic

Anions
Draw the Lewis structure of carbonate ion, CO32-

Draw a skeletal structure of the molecule

1.

Carbon is less electronegative than oxygen

2.

This makes carbon the central atom

Skeletal structure and charge:

The total number of valence electrons is determined by

adding one electron for each unit of negative charge

1 C atom x 4 valence electrons = 4 e3 O atoms x 6 valence electron = 18 e+ 2 negative charges

= 2 e24 e- total

Distribute these e- around the skeletal structure

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structure of Polyatomic

Anions
Draw the Lewis structure of carbonate ion, CO324.

Distributing the electrons around the central carbon

atom (4 bonds) and around the surrounding O atoms
attempting to satisfy the octet rule results in:

5.

This satisfies the octet rule for the 3 oxygen, but not
for the carbon
Move a lone pair from one of the O atoms to form
another bond with C

6.

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structure, Stability, Multiple

Bonds, and Bond Energies
Single bond - one pair of electrons are
shared between two atoms
Double bond - two pairs of electrons are
shared between two atoms
Triple bond - three pairs of electrons are
shared between two atoms
Very stable

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

H : H or H - H

.. ..
O :: O or O O

.. ..
NM
MN or N N
Bond energy - the amount of energy
required to break a bond holding two
atoms together
triple bond > double bond > single bond
Bond length - the distance separating the
nuclei of two adjacent atoms
single bond > double bond > triple bond

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structures and Resonance

Write the Lewis structure of CO32 If you look around you, you will probably
see the double bond put in different places
Who is right? All of you!
In some cases it is possible to write more
than one Lewis structure that satisfies the
octet rule for a particular compound

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

..
:O:
:

:O:
::

..
:O:
:

..
..
..
..
..
: O : C :: O : O : C : O : : O :: C : O :

Experimental evidence shows all bonds are

the same length, meaning there is not really
any double bond in this ion
None of theses three Lewis structures exist,
but the actual structure is an average or
hybrid of these three Lewis structures
Resonance - two or more Lewis structures
that contribute to the real structure

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structures and Exceptions

to the Octet Rule
1. Incomplete octet - less then eight
electrons around an atom other than H
Lets look at BeH2
1 Be atom x 2 valence electrons = 2 e2 H atoms x 1 valence electrons = 2 etotal 4 e Resulting Lewis structure:
H : Be : H or H Be H

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Odd Electron
2. Odd electron - if there is an odd number of
valence electrons, it is not possible to give
every atom eight electrons

Lets look at NO, nitric oxide

It is impossible to pair all electrons as the

compound contains an ODD number of valence
electrons

N - O

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Expanded Octet
3. Expanded octet - an element in the 3rd period or below

may have 10 and 12 electrons around it

Expanded octet is the most common exception

Consider the Lewis structure of PF 5

Phosphorus is a third period element

1 P atom x 5 valence electrons = 5 e 5 F atoms x 7 valence electrons = 35 e 40 e- total

3.

Distributing the electrons results in this Lewis structure

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structures and Molecular

Geometry: VSEPR Theory
Molecular shape plays a large part in
determining properties and shape
VSEPR theory - Valance Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion theory
Used to predict the shape of the molecules
All electrons around the central atom arrange
themselves so they can be as far away from
each other as possible to minimize electronic
repulsion

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

VSEPR Theory
In the covalent bond, bonding electrons
are localized around the nucleus
The covalent bond is directional, having
a specific orientation in space between
the bonded atoms
Ionic bonds have electrostatic forces
which have no specific orientation in
space

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Molecular Bonding
Bonding pair = two electrons shared
by 2 atoms
H:O

Nonbonding pair = two electrons

belonging to 1 atom, pair not shared
N:

Maximal separation of bonding pairs

= 4 corners of a TETRAHEDRON

3.4 Molecular Geometry

A Stable Exception to the Octet

Rule
Consider BeH2
Only 4 electrons surround the beryllium atom
These 2 electron pairs have minimal repulsion
when located on opposite sides of the structure
Linear structure having bond angles of 180

3.4 Molecular Geometry

Another Stable Exception to the

Octet Rule
Consider BF3
There are 3 shared electron pairs around the central
atom
These electron pairs have minimal repulsion when
placed in a plane, forming a triangle
Trigonal planar structure with bond angles of 120

3.4 Molecular Geometry

Basic Electron Pair Repulsion of

a Full Octet
Consider CH4
There are 4 shared electron pairs around the central
Carbon
Minimal electron repulsion when electrons are placed at
the four corners of a tetrahedron
Each H-C-H bond angle is 109.5

Tetrahedron is the primary structure of a full octet

3.4 Molecular Geometry

Basic Electron Pair Repulsion of

a Full Octet with One Lone Pair
Consider NH3
There are 4 electron pairs around the central Nitrogen
3 pairs are shared electron pairs
1 pair is a lone pair
A lone pair is more electronegative with a greater electron repulsion
The lone pair takes one of the corners of the tetrahedron without being visible,
distorting the arrangement of electron pairs

Ammonia has a trigonal pyramidal structure with 107 angles

3.4 Molecular Geometry

Basic Electron Pair Repulsion of

a Full Octet with Two Lone Pairs
Consider H2O
There are 4 electron pairs around the central Oxygen
2 pairs are shared electron pairs
2 pairs are lone pairs
All 4 electron pairs are approximately tetrahedral to each other
The lone pairs take two of the corners of the tetrahedron without being visible,
distorting the arrangement of electron pairs

Water has a bent or angular structure with 104.5 bond angles

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Predicting Geometric Shape Using

Electron Pairs

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Basic Procedure to Determine

Molecular Shape
1. Write the Lewis structure
2. Count the number of shared electron pairs and
lone pairs around the central atom
3. If no lone pairs are present, shape is:

2 shared pairs - linear

3 shared pairs - trigonal planar
4 shared pairs - tetrahedral

4. Look at the arrangement and name the shape

Linear
Trigonal planar
Bent
Trigonal pyramid
Tetrahedral

3.4 Molecular Geometry

More Complex Molecules

Consider dimethyl ether
Has 2 different central atoms:
oxygen
carbon
CH3 (methyl group) has tetrahedral geometry (like methane)

Portion of the molecule linking the two methyl groups would bond angles similar to water

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Determine the Molecular

Geometry
PCl3
SO2
PH3
SiH4

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Lewis Structures and Polarity

A molecule is polar if its centers of positive and
negative charges do not coincide
Polar molecules when placed in an electric field
will align themselves in the field
Molecules that are polar behave as a dipole (having
two poles or ends)
One end is positively charged the other is negatively
charged

Nonpolar molecules will not align themselves in

an electric field

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Determining Polarity
To determine if a molecule is polar:
Write the Lewis structure
Draw the geometry
Use the following symbol to denote the polarity
of each bond
Positive end of the
bond, the less
electronegative atom

Negative end of the bond,

more electronegative atom
attracts the electrons more
strongly towards it

3.4 Drawing Lewis

Structures of Molecules

Practice Determining Polarity

Determine whether the following bonds and
molecules are polar:
1.

Si Cl

1. O2

2.

HC

2. HF

3.

CC

3. CH4

4.

S Cl

4. H2O

3.5 Properties Based on Electronic

Structure and Molecular Geometry
Intramolecular forces attractive forces
within molecules Chemical bonds
Intermolecular forces attractive forces
between molecules
Intermolecular forces determine many
physical properties
Intermolecular forces are a direct consequence
of the intramolecular forces in the molecules

3.5 Properties Based on Electronic

Structure and Molecular Geometry

Solubility and Intermolecular

Forces
Solubility - the maximum amount of solute
that dissolves in a given amount of solvent
at a specific temperature
Like dissolves like
Polar molecules are most soluble in polar
solvents
Nonpolar molecules are most soluble in
nonpolar solvents

Does ammonia, NH3, dissolve in water?

Yes, both molecules are polar

3.5 Properties Based on Electronic

Structure and Molecular Geometry

Interaction of Water and

Ammonia

The - end of ammonia, N, is attracted to the + end of

the water molecule, H
The + end of ammonia, H, is attracted to the - end of
the water molecule, O
The attractive forces, called hydrogen bonds, pull
ammonia into water, distributing the ammonia molecules
throughout the water, forming a homogeneous solution

3.5 Properties Based on Electronic

Structure and Molecular Geometry

Interaction of Water and Oil

What do you know about oil
and water?
They dont mix
Why?
Because water is polar and
oil is nonpolar
Water molecules exert their
attractive forces on other water
molecules
Oil remains insoluble and
floats on the surface of the
water as it is less dense

3.5 Properties Based on Electronic

Structure and Molecular Geometry

Boiling Points of Liquids

and Melting Points of Solids
Energy is used to overcome the
intermolecular attractive forces in a
substance, driving the molecules into a less
associated phase
The greater the intermolecular force, the
more energy is required leading to
Higher melting point of a solid
Higher boiling point of a liquid

3.5 Properties Based on Electronic

Structure and Molecular Geometry

Factors Influencing Boiling and

Melting Points
Strength of the attractive force holding the
substance in its current physical state
Molecular mass
Larger molecules have higher m.p. and b.p. than
smaller molecules as it is more difficult to convert a
larger mass to another phase

Polarity
Polar molecules have higher m.p. and b.p. than
nonpolar molecules of similar molecular mass due to
their stronger attractive force

3.5 Properties Based on Electronic

Structure and Molecular Geometry

Melting and Boiling Points

Selected Compounds by Bonding Type