Heriot-Watt University

INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Immiscible Displacement
Adrian C Todd

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Immiscible displacement

Context: water displacing oil.

Water drive a very effective recovery mechanism.

Water injection a very common oilfield practise.

Modelling water drive is often carried out within

reservoir simulators.
Objective: to understand the mechanisms rather than
blindly using the black box.
Useful texts; Dake & Chierici.

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Reasons for Water Injection

Main intervention method.

High recovery & available fluids.

Historically considered as a secondary recovery process.

Using water to sweep out previously unrecovered oil.

Todays perspective is keeping reservoir pressure above

bubble point.

Pressure maintenance. Voidage replacement

Prevents solution gas drive.

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Technical challenges of water Injection

Water is produced.
Environmental. A disposal challenge of
contaminated water.

Reinjection of produced water.

Chemical incompatibility -scale

Corrosion

Bacteria

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Benefits of water Injection

In some cases not all of the reservoir may receive aquifer
- Zone
support.Isolation

Aquifer support may be uncertain

Only after production support becomes evident.

Rate

Rate

Time

Time

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High Permeability

kA dP
q
dl

High injection / production rates

Wide well spacing

Rapid fluid movement

Accelerated development

Qi

Qp

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Oil viscosity

Low oil viscosity leads to

good mobility ratio.

Kro

Krw

k 'rw / w
Mobility Ratio, M '
k ro / o
M < 1 gives piston like
displacement
1-Sor

Sw

Oil

Krw

Water

Oil

Kro

Swc
x

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Undersaturated
Reservoirs

Pressure surveys
can give an
excellent insight
into communication
in the reservoir.
Enables layered
nature so important
in waterflooding to
be defined.

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Overpressured Reservoirs

Can let the pressure fall significantly

to get a feel of the reservoir.

Depth

Pressure

1000-2000psi
N. Viking Graben-N.Sea

5500psi

4500psi

P
3500psi
Time
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Reservoir Depth

In offshore environments
facilities very costly.
In waterflooding injection
wells at the extremes of the
formation.
Well slots have to be capable
of reaching these limits.
Horizontal wells now enable
shallower accumulations to
be reached

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Facility Design

Issues:

Where to inject.

Ability to inject.

When and how much water is produced.

How to handle it.

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Thermal Fracturing

Experience over recent years has

shown that water injection injectivity
has been better than expected.
The cold water has cooled the
formation such that injection
pressures have been able to
overcome fracture pressure, which
reduces when cooled.
Thermal fracturing.
Provides a higher injection area
than for a radial injection geometry

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Water Handling

Water handling- one of the

major technical challenges
of the oil industry.
Environmental pressures
increasing in relation to oil
emissions.
Reservoir engineers need
to predict water production
to enable design.
When and how much.

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Basic Waterdrive Theory

Method applicable to gas injection as well as water injection.

Immiscible process

No mixing of the respective injection and displaced fluids.

Miscible process where injected phases mix with displaced phase by

mass transfer of components.
In our calculations we are combining properties, measurements and
application over a huge range of physical scales.

This is the case in oil recovery predictions.

Important not to make unrealsitic jumps in application of data

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Basic Waterdrive Theory

In water-oil displacement we are dealing with a process which takes place at a

range of scales.
Pore or microscopic scale.
Isolation and movement of fluids is dependant on, IFT, wettability, viscosity, pore
size and shape.
Larger, macroscopic scale.
Behaviour at laboratory level scale, e.g. core plug scale. Permeability, relative
permeability and capillary pressure.

Field Scale, or behavioural scale.

Quantum leap of scale. Heterogeneous formations.

Vertical segregation over large thickness.

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Levels of viewing
displacement

Electron
microscope
scale

Core
scale

Field scale
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Water Oil Displacement at Microscopic and

Macroscopic levels

Trapped oil in swept area held by capillary

and IFT forces.

Residual saturation Sor

10-40% of the pore space

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Water Oil
Displacement at
Microscopic level

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Water Oil Displacement at Reservoir Level

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Factors that Dictate Flooding Efficiency

Mobility Ratio

Heterogeneity

Gravity

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Relative Permeability

Darcys law for 100% single

phase saturation.
Relative permeability used to
relate absolute permeability (
single phase ) to the effective
permeability when more than
on phase present.

Q k p
u
A l

k rw

k ew

k
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Relative
Permeability

Darcys law for linear

flow for two fluids in
an inclined
configuration.
kk ro A p o

qo
o gSin

o x

kk rw A p w

qw
w gSin

w x

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Relative
End point relative
Permeability
permeabilities, krw & kro.

permeabilities, krw & kro.

Limiting saturations of the

respective phases
Relative permeabilities from 1D
core floods.
Either viscous displacement or
steady state co-injection of
fluids.
Unlikely to be representative of
reservoir

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Relative Permeability
k 'rw / w
Mobility Ratio, M '
k ro / o
Express volumes in
the core plug as pore
volumes, PV.

Sor

Swc

PV AL
Movable oil volume, MOV. PV 1 Sor Swc
End point rel. perm. values represent maximum velocity of the
water flow compared to the maximum velocity of the oil.
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Fractional Flow

For flow in core plug or a reservoir. Ratio of flow of water at any point
is termed:

fractional flow.

qo q t q w

qw
fw
q w qo

Subtracting Darcy equations for water and oil, P atmos.

w
o
q t o
gSin
Pc
qw

6
kk
kk
kk

x
1.0133

10

rw
ro
ro

where

Pc po p w

x
x
x

w o
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Fractional Flow
Values now inserted into fractional flow
equation

kk ro A Pc
gSin
1

6
q t o x 1.0133 10
fw
k ro w
1
k rw o
Dake simplified this to;

qw
fw
q w qo

1 G
fw
k ro w
1
k rw o

kk ro AgSin
G 4.886 10
G = positive gravity number
q t o
4

qt/A=velocity term

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Impact of parameters on fractional flow

kk ro AgSin
G 4.886 10
q t o
4

Angle of dip
Water injected downdip gravity term is positivereduces fractional flow.
If gas injection downdip gravity term positive
increasing fractional flow of gas.
If dip angle zero, horizontal flow, gravity term is zero

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kk A P flowgSin
Impact of parameters on 1fractional

x 1.0133 10
Capillary pressure
f
ro

Pc Pc Sw

x Sw x

k ro w
k rw o

Capillary pressure increases fractional flow

of water
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Impact of parameters on fractional

flowkk
A

gSin

4
ro
G 4.886 10
velocity
q t o

For edge water drive velocity much higher than

bottom water drive- e.g. v=0.2ft/d

G=0.22

For bottom water much lower velocity v= 0.004 ft/d

G=10.29

Leads to piston displacement for bottom water drive.

Problem here however is well bore coning

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Fractional Flow

If angle of dip and

capillary pressure
effects ignored.
Fractional flow
equation becomes

1
fw
w k ro
1
o k rw
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Relationship between capillary pressure,relative

permeability and fractional flow

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Relationship
between capillary
relative
Atpressure,
A the well only
produces
oil
permeability
and
fractional flow
At B,45%saturation
both oil & water
produced with water
cut of 50%.

At C advancing water
isolated irreducible oil
saturation
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Displacement Theories

Assumptions:

Displacement is incompressible.

qt=qo+qw=qi

qt=total flow rate in reservoir.

qo=oil flow rate in reservoir.

qw=water flow rate in reservoir.

qi=water injection flow rate in reservoir.

Diffuse Flow
The saturations at any point are uniformly distributed
over the thickness.

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Diffuse Flow

Enables a 1 dimensional simple analysis.

A simple core flood this assumption not
unreasonable.
Can be encountered in a reservoir injection
where rates are high and vertical equilibrium
not able to be established.
For low injection rates where the thickness is
small compared to transition zone.

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Buckley-Leverett Theory

Established in 1942 for displacement calculations.

Theory for linear one dimensional displacement.

Total flow rate is constant. (Incompressible ).

Theory determines the velocity of a plane of constant

water saturation moving through a linear system.

e.g. a core.

Well founded on principle of conservation of mass

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Buckley-Leverett Theory

Mass flow rate in - mass flow rate out

= rate of increase of mass in volume

q w w x q w w

x dx

Adx w Sw
t

or q w w q w w
q w w dx Adx wSw
x
x
x
t

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Buckley-Leverett Theory

q w w A wSw
x
t
For incompressible flow , wconstant

q w
Sw
A
x t
t

Differential of water saturation is

Sw
Sw
dSw
dx t
dt
x
t x
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Buckley-Leverett Theory
We are examining the advancement of a particular saturation.
Sw is constant therefore dSw=0, therefore

Sw
t

Sw dx

x dt Sw

Combining in

q w Sw
q w

Also x t Sw t
t

q w
Sw
A
x t
t

gives
x

q w
x
A
S t
t Sw

For incompressible flow qt is constant.

Water flow rate is total flow times fractional flow, q w=qt x fw.

vSw

q t f w
dx

dt Sw A Sw

VSw is the velocity of the

plane of saturation,Sw
Sw
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Buckley-Leverett Theory
vSw

q t f w
dx

dt Sw A Sw

This is the Buckley-Leverett equation.

Also called the Equation of Characteristics.

Sw

It indicates the velocity of a plane of saturation moving

through the linear system.
It enables the calculation of Sw as a function of time
and distance.
It indicates the dependance on the derivative of the
fractional flow curve.
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Equation of Characteristics

Clierici has given a thorough analysis of the

displacement process for three fractional flow
curve types.
Important to understand the initial boundary
conditions

SwS Swi
L, tt
oo
1 for
S o<x
for x=0,
w

or

Sw Swi for o<x L, t o

Sw 1 Sor for x=0, t o

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Equation of Characteristics
If the initial conditions at t=0 are applied to the general equation

vSw

dx
q t f w

dt Sw A Sw

Sw

and the equation is then integrated a general solution of the

displacement process is obtained for the calculation of Sw in
terms of x and t.
Velocity x time =distance.

x Sw

q t df w
x 0 Sw

t
A dSw Sw

This equation describes a series

of straight lines, the
characteristics, with an initial
and slope of
ordinate value of
x S
0

q t df w

A dSw

Sw
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Viscous Oils

Viscosity of displaced phase much greater

than injected water phase.
Fractional flow curve has a concave
downward slope.
Its gradient fw increases from Sw=1-Sor. To a
maximum at Sw=Swi+Swi

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Viscous Oils
Cierici
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Viscous Oils

Cierici

Velocity of Sw increases from its value at Sw=1-Sor to its

maximum at Sw just greater than Swi.
Heavy oil produces water very early and steadily increases until
too high levels of water.
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Very light oils

Low relative viscosity to injected water.

Large gravitational effects.

Low velocity

Concave upward fractional flow curve.

fw curve decreasing from value at Sw=1-Sor

to a minimum at Sw just greater than Swi.

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Very light oils

Cierici

upwards

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Very light oils

Cierici

Fastest saturation 1-Sor quickly overtakes other saturations.

Shock front developed.

Until shock front arrives water free oil production

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Typical Medium Density Oils

Displacement velocities not unlike field

values
S shaped fractional flow curve

Two curvatures
Derivative curve, fw. Slope
increases from its starting value
Sw=1-Sor and then decreases.

Cierici
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Typical Medium Density Oils

Development of the saturation would be a steady increase in

the velocity of the increasing saturation.

This would reach a maximum at Swf whereSwi<Swf<(1-Sor)

Behind this velocities decrease with increasing Sw.

Cierici

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Typical Medium Density Oils

A shock front is developed at value of Swf.

The saturations greater than this moving at a lower velocity.

Behind this shock front a steady increase in the saturations

moving at decreasing velocity

Cierici

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Typical Medium Density Oils

Cierici

Water free oil is produced until breakthrough at

saturation Swf and fractional flow of fwbt.
Saturation then climbs until irreducible oil saturation
value, when only water is produced.
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Velocity of shock front

Material balance across

the shock front.
R ahead L behind.
Velocity of front vf=dxf/dt

q w ,L dt q w,R dt A Sw ,L Sw,R dx f
Since q w q t f w
Since q t Au t
Rankine-Hugoniot
condition for velocity of
shock fronts

dx f
q t f w,L f w,R
vf

dt
A Sw,L Sw,F
dx f u t f w,L f w,R
vf

dt
Sw,L Sw,F
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Velocity of shock front

Limiting conditions
Sw ,L 1 Sor

Sw,R Swi

f w ,L 1

f w,R 0

Therefore

f
S

w,L
w,L

f w ,R

Sw,R

1
1 Sor Swi

tan

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From Buckley Leverett equation vSw1Sor

dx
u t f w

dt 1Sor Sw

1Sor

Combining equations
v1Sor

dx
u t f w

dt 1Sor Sw

1Sor

u t f w,L f w,R u t
1
ut

tan
Sw,L Sw,R 1 Sor Swi

If we apply the Rankine-Hugonoit condition to the medium

oil viscosity condition, the S shaped fw curve
Sw,L Swf

Sw,R Swi

f w,L f w Swf

v wf

dx

dt

wf

u t f w

Sw

f w,R 0

wf

u t f w,L f w,R u t
f wf
ut

tan
Sw,L Sw,R Swf Swi
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Graphical Procedure

Examination of these equations provides a convenient

procedure to determine conditions at the shock front

df w
tan
dSw

wf

f wf

Swf Swi

Tangent drawn to the

fractional flow curve from
Swi,0, meets the curve at
shock front conditions.

tan

df w
dSw

wf

f wf
Swf Swi

Time for breakthough

to producer

L L Swf Swi
t bt

vf u t f w swf
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Welge Analysis

Welge provided a method to obtain average saturation

behind shock front.
Useful for oil recovery calculations.

Water injected at a rate of qw

Time for breakthrough, tbt

L AL Swf Swi
t bt

vf
q w f w swf

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Welge Analysis
Before water arrives at
producer, the volume of
oil produced is equivalent
to volume of water
injected, Wi=qw x t.

N pbt q w t bt
At breakthrough volume of oil produced, Np is also the
difference between the initial oil volume, (AL(1-Swi). Less
that remaining in terms of the average water saturation, Sw,
(AL(1-Swavg)

N pbt AL Sw Swi
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Welge Analysis

N pbt

Swf Swi
q w t bt AL
AL Sw Swi
f w swf
Therefore

Swf Swi
Sw Swi
f wf

From a previous equation

Therefore

df w
tan
dSw

Sw Swi

wf

f wf

Swf Swi

1
df w

dSw Swf
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Welge Analysis
Combining equations gives

1 f wf

df w
Swf Swi Sw Swf
1

Swbt Swf

Sw Swi Sw Swi
dSw Swf

Rearranging gives

Swbt Swf

1 f wf
df w

dSw Swf

df w
1 f wf
1

dSw Swf Swbt Swf Swbt Swi

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Welge Analysis

df w
1 f wf
1

dSw Swf Swbt Swf Swbt Swi

This provides another graphical significance enabling the

average saturation to be determined.
The line of the tangent
at breakthrough also
cuts the fw=1 line at
Sw=Sw avg

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Oil Recovery Calculations

Analysis so far is for displacement process for a small

core plug of oil by water
In recovery calculations useful to express volumes in
pore volumes, PV

Swc

Sor
L

PV AL
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Oil Recovery - Before Breakthrough

Before breakthrough only oil produced.

At a rate the same as water injected because it is an
incompressibile system.
At breakthrough >

N pdbt Wid bt q id t bt Sw bt Swi

N pd bt pore volumes oil produced at breakthrough

Widbt pore volumes water injected at breakthrough
q id water injection rate in pore volumes
qi
q id
AL
t bt is the time taken for water to breakthrough
t bt

Wid t
q id

Sw bt average water saturation in reservoir at breakthough

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Oil Recovery - Before Breakthrough

At breakthrough when x=L

In Buckley-Leverett eqn.
dx
q t t bt f w
vSw t bt
t bt x Sbt L
dt Sw
A Sw

Sw

Wi f w

A Sw

Sw

Wi
1
Wid

LA df w
dSw Swbt
Oil recovery at breakthrough equal to inverse of the slope of
breakthrough characteristic, the slope of line drawn from Swi to
tangent of fractional flow curve.

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Oil Recovery - Before Breakthrough

N pd t Wid bt q id t t bt Sw bt Swi

1
df w
dSw

Swbt

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Oil Recovery - After Breakthrough

After breakthrough the saturation at the exit of the

core increases until irreducible oil saturation reached.

From Welge equation

Sw Swe

1 f w Swe
df w

dS
w Swe

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Oil Recovery - After

Breakthrough
In terms of pore volumes

Sw Swe 1 f w

Swe

Wid

Oil recovery

N pd Sw Swi Swe Swi 1 f w

Swe

id

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Oil Recovery - After Breakthrough

This equation N pd Sw Swi Swe Swi 1 f w Swe Wid
Also gives a useful
construction to
determine average
saturation

df w
dSw

1 f

S S
w Swe

Swe

df w
dSw

Swe

1 f
S S
w Swe

we

we

A line tangential to
the FF curve at the
exit water
saturation
intersects fw=1 at
the S avg value.

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Oil Recovery Calculation procedure

1. Generate a fractional flow vs. water saturation curve

using appropriate rel.perm . data.
2. Draw a tangent to the fractional flow curve from the
point Sw=Swi position at fw=0
(i) fw=fwbt, Sw=Swbt
(ii)extrapolation of line to fw=1 gives average saturation
value.
(iii)

(iii)

N pd t Widbt q id t t bt Sw bt Swi
Time for breakthrough is

t bt

df w
1/
dSw

Swbt

Wid bt
q id
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Oil Recovery Calculation procedure

After breakthrough.

Select a saturation greater than breakthrough value and:

(i) fw=fwe, Sw=Swe and extrapolation of tangential line to fw=1

gives average saturation value.
(ii) Oil recovery is

N pd Sw Swi Swe Swi 1 f w

(iii)

Time for breakthrough is

t bt

Wide
q ide

Swe

id

Wi
1
Wid

LA df w
dSw Swe

This step is repeated for increasing values of Swe up to Sw=1Sor.

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Oil Recovery

Up to breakthrough the recovery is linear as the oil

recovered is equal to water injected.
After breakthrough recovery determined by fractional flow
curve.
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Impact of Viscosity

Viscosity has a very significant

impact on the fractional flow curve

A - high oil/water
viscosity ratio.
Dense, viscous oil
unstable displacement.
Would require many pore
voumes of water to
displace oil
M>>1
Improving recovery by
reducing viscosity.
Thermal recovery EOR.
Effect on oil greater than
water

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Impact of Viscosity

Viscosity has a very significant

impact on the fractional flow curve

B - medium viscosity
ratio.
More stable favourable
displacement.
Shock front developed
M around 1

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Impact of Viscosity

Viscosity has a very significant

impact on the fractional flow curve

C - very low oil:water

viscosity ratio.
Light oil
Fractional flow curvature
opposite to case A
Very stable
displacement.
Piston like
M<1

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Impact of Viscosity

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Shape of the Fractional Flow for Most Common

Flooding Condition (M<1)
At point of chord
contact

N pd Sw Swc (PV)
N pd 1 Sor Swc =1 (MOV)

Piston like displacement

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Shape of the Very Worst Type of Flooding

Condition (M>>1)
Concave downward
shape:
implies that all
saturations can be
seen to have
independent
mobility

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Application to reservoir systems

Analysis so far is for one dimensional situations where a
uniform saturation distribution can be assumed over the flow
cross section. Diffuse flow.
For example a core plug.

Reservoirs generally cannot be handled with such simplicity.

The reservoirs have thickness and vertical permeability, giving
rise to segregated flow.
The reservoirs may not be homogeneous but made up of
layers which may or may not be in communication
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Two dimensional behaviour segregated flow

In diffuse flow uniform saturation distributed over thickness.

Need to scale up to 2 dimensions to give more realistic
perspective.

Segregated flow

Leads to saturation distribution over the thickness.

Dietz

A sharp interface is assumed between oil bearing and

flooded part of formation

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Segregated flow-Dietz
Core plug 1 dimensional

Oil + immobile connate

water

Water + immobile residual oil

Assumptions:
Homogeneous formation
Strong gravity segregation
Zero capillary pressure

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Segregated flow
Vertical equilibrium
assumed to exist.
-large density
contrast between
displacing fluid and
oil.
High vertical
permeability
Low oil viscosity
Low fluid velocity

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Comparison of forces
A useful indicator of dominating forces is the relation of
viscous to capillary forces

u o
N vc
Cos
and viscous to gravity forces

u o
N vg
k o g w o
Nvc and Nvg are the capillary and gravity numbers
In vertical equilibrium both of these are low.
c ACTODD

Segregated flow
In flooded part of the
reservoir only water is
flowing.
kw=kkrw
In the unflooded zone only oil
is flowing.
ko=kkro
Distinct interface between oil
and water
No capillary transition zone.

c ACTODD

Displacement Calculations for

Segregated Flow
Consider a point in
the displacement
path.
We have a sharp
interface over the
formation thickness
Average saturation
over this formation
thickness h is:

At any point x, hw
represents fractional
thickness below water
oil interface

Sw h w 1 Sor 1 h w Swc

Solving for hw gives:

Sw Swc
hw
1 Sor Swc

Since Sor & Swc

are constant hw
proportional to
Savg
c ACTODD

Displacement Calculations for

Segregated Flow
Average relative permeability
over the thickness, the
thickness averaged relative
permeability is for water;

k rw

Sw

h w k rw

k rw

Sw

1 h w k rw

h w k 'rw

Sw 1Sor

k rw 0 at Swc and k rw k
Therefore

k rw

Sw

hwk

'
rw

'
rw

Sw Swc

at Sw 1 Sor
krw is the end point
relative permeability to
water

c ACTODD

Displacement Calculations for

Segregated Flow
Average relative permeability
over the thickness, the
thickness averaged relative
permeability is for oil;

k ro

Sw

h w k ro Sw 1Sor 1 h w k ro Sw Swc

k rw k 'ro at Swc and k ro 0 at Sw 1 Sor

Therefore

k ro

Sw

1 hw k

'
rw

kro is the end point

relative
permeability to oil

c ACTODD

Displacement Calculations for

Segregated Flow

If hw is now replaced in:

Sw Swc
hw
1 Sor Swc
we have

and

k rw

k ro

Sw

Sw

k rw

Sw Swc '
k rw
1 Sor Sc

Sw Swc '

k rw
1 Sor Swc
Sw

1 Sor Sw '

k ro
1 Sor Swc

Relative permeability linear functions of average

water saturation
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Displacement Calculations for Segregated Flow

Relative permeability linear functions of average
water saturation
Diffuse flow curves

Linear thickness averaged relative permeability some times called

pseudo relative permeability

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Displacement Calculations for Segregated Flow

Procedure
Using core determined relative permeability curves generate
linear thickness averaged relative permeability lines
Only end point values required for this
Calculate fractional flow curve using the pseudo( thickness)
averaged relative permeabilities.
Apply one dimensional calculations to determine
breakthrough and recovery.

c ACTODD

Reservoir Heterogeneity

Because of the depositional process reservoir formations are

heterogeneous.

This has considerable impact on displacement process.

Two types of heterogeneity

Vertical heterogeneity

Horizontal heterogeneity.

The total recovery Np of the fluids in place N, is a combination

of the recovery in the respective dimensions

EA is the areal sweep efficiency,EV is

Np

the vertical sweep efficiency

EV EA

Formations swept by water leaves oil at irreducible saturation.

Unswept oil at the original satuation

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Reservoir Heterogeneity

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Vertical Heterogeneity

The process of formation generates considerable variations in rock

properties.

Major impact on the permeability.

Permeability variation has considerable impact on water drive.

Vital that this heterogeneity perspective is well characterised.

A layer in the formation of very high permeability can have a very serious
impact on the oil recovery process.
Another aspect of importance is the connectivity between layers
Open hole pressure surveys very powerful after production has started in
identifying layers

c ACTODD

Pressure
profiles

c ACTODD

Examples of
pressure
surveys

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Areal Heterogeneity

Areal heterogeneity also effects sweep

efficiency
Other impacts from well spacing and
configuration.
More uncertainty in areal sweep than vertical.
Dake has suggested vertical calculations are
done in combination with production data to
history match areal sweep efficiency.

c ACTODD

Vertical Sweep Displacement Calculations

Methods used for diffuse flow can be used for

layered systems.

For layers with communication.

Cross flow

and for layers with no communication

No cross flow

The first step is to identify the layers and their

individual characteristics

c ACTODD

Vertical Sweep Displacement Calculations

hi

ki

i th layer
i Sori krwi Swci kroi

Connate water saturation

End point relative
Thickness
Irreducible oil saturation permeability oil
Permeability
Porosity End point relative permeability water
c ACTODD

Vertical Sweep Displacement Calculations

Consider vertical
pressure
communication
between layers
decide if there is
cross flow or no cross
flow.
Decide flooding order of
layers
Generate thickness average saturations and relative
permeabilties.
n
N
As each layer floods out
J is the ordering
of the flooding
layers

Sw n

h 1 S
j1

orj

h S
j n 1

j wc j

h
j1

j
c ACTODD

Vertical Sweep Displacement Calculations

n

k rw n

Sw n

h k k
j

j1

'
rw j

h k
j

and
N

k ron

Sw n

hkk

j n 1
N

h k
j

'
ro j

These average saturations and

thickness averaged relative
permeabilities are then used to
generate fractional flow curve
The problem can now be
solved using the I-D approach
c ACTODD

Vertical Sweep Displacement Calculations Ordering

the
layers
The
engineerof
has
some
control on the ordering of the layers
If there is very strong vertical equilibrium with strong
segregation then the layers will flood out from the bottom layer.

c ACTODD

Vertical Sweep Displacement Calculations Ordering

layers- No between
cross flow
When thereof
is the
no communication
layers then the
layers will flood out according to the velocity of displacement of
each layer.
Velocity of each layer i, is given by

vi

kik

'
rw i

i 1 Sori Swci

Stiles then flooded out the natural layers in order of

decreasing velocity. A mobility ratio around 1 is assumed.
c ACTODD

Ordering of the layers- No cross flow

Natural order

Increasing velocity

c ACTODD

Ordering of the layers- No cross flow

Increasing velocity

Ordering of layers impacts on the pseudo relative

permeabilities, which results in a subsequent fractional flow
curve.
When fractional flow curve generated breakthrough and
recovery analysis as for 1-D case.
c ACTODD

Impact of Capillary Pressure in Homogeneous

systems

So far neglected capillary pressure for diffuse flow where

saturation uniformly distributed over thickness.
And segregated flow where we have an oil-water contact.
If capillary pressure significant then the transition zone
cannot be ignored.
If reservoir thin relative to transition zone-diffuse flow
conditions.
If transition zone negligible displacement segregated

c ACTODD

Impact of Capillary Pressure in Homogeneous

systems

If neither of these two extremes exist capillary

pressure needs to be considered.
Dake gives a full account. Based on moving the
transition zone in stages and at each stage
determining average saturations and average
relative permeabilities. These form the basis of new
fractional flow curve then treated as 1-D case.
Impact is between diffuse flow and segregated flow.

c ACTODD

Impact of Capillary
Pressure in
Homogeneous systems

Dake

Dake
c ACTODD

Impact of relative position of high permeability

layers

Figures of pseudo rel. perms. below for cross flow cases of

the impact of the high permeability layer being at the top as
compared to the base.
An example from Dake of a three layer system is illustrated.
High perm at base
High perm at top

Dake
c ACTODD

Impact of relative position of high permeability

layers
Fractional flow curves

Very early breakthrough

Shock front developed

Dake
c ACTODD

Impact of Permeability Distribution on

Waterflooding

Previous layered illustration demonstrated impact

of relative position of layers in a heterogeneous
system.

Absolute values of k not so significant more the

relative contrast in permeability.

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Impact of Permeability Distribution on Waterflooding Unfavourable permeability distribution

c ACTODD

Impact of Permeability Distribution on Waterflooding Favourable permeability distribution

Archer
c ACTODD

Impact of
Permeability
Distribution on
Waterflooding

Dake
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Impact of Permeability Distribution on

Waterflooding

Fractional flow curve determines quality of water

flood.
Demonstrated by saturation at breakthrough and
subsequent production.

Shape of FF curve influenced by various factors.

Relative viscosities

endpoint relative permeabilities

permeability distribution

c ACTODD

Impact of Permeability Distribution on

Waterflooding

Impact of mobility ratio ( viscosity effect) and permeability

distribution illustrated below
Coarsening upward

Coarsening down

Shock front even at

high M
Very early
breakthrough
even with
favourable M

Piston like displacement

Dake
c ACTODD

Impact of Permeability Distribution on

Waterflooding

Impact on water
production.

Early water
breakthrough at low
water cut requires a
long time to displace
oil.
Coarsening up with
favourable mobility
ratio leads to delayed
breakthrough then
rapid increase

c ACTODD

Application to Field Performance

The displacement equations can be used to examine actual field

waterflood performance of fields in production.
Then used to generate information to determine future waterflood
strategy.

Development of a reservoir fractional flow curve..

Production data provides;

Oil production, Np

Water injection, Wi

Exit fractional flow, fws

c ACTODD

Application to Field Performance

Using recovery equation

N pd Sw Swi Swe Swi 1 f w

Swe

id

The unknown Swe can be obtained, enabling a

fw vs. Sw curve to be generated
This curve is much smoother than a typical eratic
water cut vs. production curve

c ACTODD

Application to Field Performance

Typical water cut curve

Difficult to analyse

Dake
c ACTODD

Reservoir Fractional Flow Curve

Extrapolated Sw avg

Increased Sw avg due to

increased water injection
Core data Sor

c ACTODD

Reservoir Fractional Flow

Core data Sor

Allowing water cut to

increase to high value
would yield increased
recovery.
However it would take
a considerable time.

Another option is to
increase injection rate if
facilties can be
upgraded
.
The option for the operator to progress This would reduce time
to achieve recovery
round the reservoir FF curve is an
increase.
interesting approach
c ACTODD

Immiscible displacement in gas drive systems

Method as generated for water-oil displacement can be

used for gas-oil displacement.
Mobility ratio for gas is very unfavourable because of large
viscosity difference
Gas drive is very unstable.

Fractional flow curve is

also very unfavourable

k 'rg k 'ro
0.5 1
M
/

/ 20
g o 0.25 1

1
fg
g k ro
1
o k rg
c ACTODD

Immiscible displacement in gas drive systems

Fractional flow curve is also very unfavourable

fg

1
k
1 g ro
o k rg

The full laboratory rel. perm. curves are not used since only the
end point values used as gravity dominates leading to
segregated flow.
c ACTODD

Immiscible displacement in gas drive systems

Recovery calculations same as for water-oil.

Can use the Buckley-Leverett and associated
Welge analysis.
Recovery of oil in gas drive equation is :

N pd Sge 1 f ge G id
Gid is the pore volumes of gas injected.
Equal to reciprocal of the slope of the FF curve at the
exit gas saturation.
c ACTODD

Immiscible displacement in gas drive systems Gravity

segregation
This is the
dominant

perspective in gas drive

In gas cap drive the

velocities are very low
giving stable interface.
When gas is injected
along bedding.
Unfavourable mobility plus
large gravity impact.
Tendency for gas override.

c ACTODD

Immiscible displacement in gas drive systems Predicting

performance
Carried out same
way as for water-oil.

Thickness average relative permeabilities generated

Layers flooded from the top.

Fractional flow curve generated.

Calculations reduced to 1-D form

h 1 S
n

Sgn

j1

orj

h
j1

Swc j

k rgn

'
h
k
k
j j rg j
j1

h k
j

k ron

j n 1
N

h jk jk 'ro j

h k
j

c ACTODD

Immiscible displacement in gas drive systems 1 G

Gravity Impact f g
k
1

ro

k rg o
kk ro A sin
G 2.743 10
v o

G is a positive gravity number

v is average Darcy velocity q/A
at the injection front.
Actual velocity is:

Oil recovery

q
v
A 1 Sor Swc
'

N pd

Sg' 1 fg G id
1 Swc

Sg' and fg are the averaged saturations and fractional flows

on the fractional flow curve after breakthrough

c ACTODD

Immiscible displacement in gas drive systems

Impact of Heterogeneity
Whereas for water-oil coarsening down gives rise to early water
breakthrough for gas injection it improves the flood profile.
Higher permeability in lower layers counteracts density
difference perspective

Other parameters

Stability of front affected by: k,q, o and

Also affected by injection rate

c ACTODD

Immiscible
displacement in
gas drive
systems

Injection rate

A. Gravity is ignored.
Unfavourable displacement
B. Impact of reducing velocity. Curve has inflection point.
Therefore a breakthrough point.
C. Lower velocity gives a higher breakthrough condition
c ACTODD

Gas Cycling

Gas cycling is a possible

option in the development
of gas condensate
reservoirs with a high
condensate to gas ratio

In this process we have dry gas displacing wet

gas.
Very costly.
Key issues are when does the dry gas arrive at
the producer.?
Although a miscible process can be analysed
using the Buckley -Leverett approach.
Usually modeled with a full compositional
simulator

c ACTODD

Miscible Dry Gas-Wet gas Displacement

Core relative permeabilities are simple linear

functions since no residual gas saturations remains
after contact with dry gas.

Mobilty ratio gives a

reasonable displacement
perspective

k 'rgd k 'rgw
1
1
M
/

/
1.5
gd gw 0.02 0.03
c ACTODD

Miscible Dry Gas-Wet gas Displacement

Permeability variation has a

big impact.
High permeability at the top
favours early breakthrough.
High permeability at the base
counterbalances slight
density impact.
High permeability layers
within formation like water
flooding can give rise to early
breakthough

c ACTODD