Piecewise Approximation

and
Finite Element Method in 1D

Jayadeep U. B.
M.E.D., NIT Calicut
Ref.: Finite Elements and Approximation, Zienkiewicz,
O. C., and Morgan, K., John Wiley & Sons.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Introduction
Why Discretization?
The trial functions can not be chosen easily, which are defined
and with continuous derivatives over the complete domain.
Improving the accuracy necessitates increasing the number of
trial functions used, leading to highly complex formulation of
the problem.
The stiffness matrix obtained is generally complete (with nonzero elements at all positions) Computational complexity.
Generally, it is tough to find functions satisfying the B.C. for
complicated domains.
In F.E.M., the domain is discretized into a large number of
sub-domains, each of which will have simple geometry.
Any trial function will have non-zero magnitude only over
few adjacent sub-domains. The approxns over individual subdomains can be added to get global approxn.
Lecture - 01

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Piecewise Approximation
The given function is approximated by a set of interpolation
functions, piece-wise continuous over the sub-domains
(elements). Each node has a trial function associated with it.
This gives another option for improving the accuracy
increase the number of sub-domains (elements).

1
2
= 1 N1 N2
x0 = 0

x1

x2

xl-1

xl

xl+1

xN-1

xN = L

For example, if we can assume that the variation of over

element e is linear, it can be approximated as:

; $ 1 N1 2 N 2 where 1 , 2 are nodal values of

N1 , N 2 are trial functions defined over element "e",
N1 1 for node 1 and N1 0 for node 2 and vice versa.

Lecture - 01

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Piecewise Approximation contd.

The nodal values are the unknowns, which will be obtained
by solving the linear algebraic system.
The trial function associated with any node will have non-zero
values only in the elements sharing those nodes.

Ni

Nj

i
x0 = 0

x2

x1

xi-1

e xi e+1 xj

xN-1

xN = L

Hence we can write the global approximation:

n

; $ i N i , where n is the total number of nodes.

i 1

Usually, the global approximation function is not required.

Trial functions are not chosen to obey the B.C. Hence, we will
have to enforce the B.C. separately.
Lecture - 01

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Piecewise Approximation contd.

Shape Functions:
In finite element terminology, the trial functions used are
usually referred as Shape Functions.
The solution of the weighted residual equations should give
the unknowns as the nodal values of the primary variable.
Hence, the shape functions should have the following
properties:
The shape function corresponding to a nodal variable
should have a unit value at that node.
The value of shape function corresponding to a node,
should be zero at all other nodes.
Any shape function should be identically zero on all the
elements, which does not share that node.
The sum of all the shape functions at any point should be
equal to unity.
Lecture - 01

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Piecewise Approximation contd.

Procedure for Obtaining Shape Functions:

Nj

Ni

i
x0 = 0

x1

x2

xl-1

xi

xj

xN-1

xN = L

For an element e as shown in figure, the linear shape

functions can be written directly as:

( x j x)

( x xi )
Ni
and N j
( x j xi )
( x j xi )

Systematic Procedure:

Let N i ( x) a bx
N i ( xi ) a bxi 1 & N i ( x j ) a bx j 0
Lecture - 01

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Piecewise Approximation contd.

Writing in Matrix Form:

1 xi a 1
1 x

j b 0
By Cramers Rule:

1 xi
1 1
det
det

0
x
x
1
0
1
j
j

a
&b

( x j xi )
( x j xi )
1 xi
1 xi
det
det

1 x
1
x

j
Therefore we get:

( x j x)
1
N i ( x) a bx

x
( x j xi ) ( x j xi )
( x j xi )
xj

Similarly, we can form the shape function Nj. (We will get it
to be same as our initial guess.)
Lecture - 01

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Piecewise Approximation contd.

This approximation can be used in Galerkin type Weighted
Residual statements (N is the total number of nodes in the
domain).
N

W ( )d N ( N
i

j 1

)d 0 for i 1, 2,..., N

In any given element, the shape functions corresponding to

the nodes of that element is non-zero. Hence, the W.R.
statements above can be written as a summation of integrals
over the individual elements.
The contribution of any element towards the weighted
residual is given by (n is the number of nodes in the
element):
n

) d
W
(

Lecture - 01

N ( N
i

j 1

) d for i 1, 2,..., n

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Piecewise Approximation contd.

Separating the variables and writing in the matrix form:

e T

(1 , 2 ,..., n ) elemental d.o.f. vector.

N N d

K ij

for i, j 1, 2,..., n

fi e

N d
i

for i 1, 2,..., n

In the case of 1D, linear element:

[K ]

Lecture - 01

x Ni Ni dx x Ni N j dx
i
i
,
xj
xj

N
N
dx
N
N
dx
x j i x j j
i
i

xj

xj

f
e

x Ni dx
i

xj

dx
x j
i

xj

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Piecewise Approximation contd.

We can use the systematic assembly procedure as seen in the
discrete systems to get global system, from the elemental
equations.

[ K ] f

(1 , 2 ,..., N )

Global d.o.f. vector.

[K ] [K e ]

E is the total number of elements

i 1
E

f f e
i 1

This algebraic system can be solved for the unknown

quantities Nodal Values of the primary variable.
Trial functions are not chosen to obey the B.C. Hence, we will
have to enforce B.C. (Boundary values of the given function)
before the solution.
Lecture - 01

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Piecewise Approximation contd.

Home Work Problem: Approximate (x) = sin(x), over the
domain 0 x , using piecewise defined linear interpolation
functions.
Use 4 elements of equal length.
Use Galerkin type Weighted Residual formulation, to find the
nodal values.
Compare the approximation function values at /6, /3, 2/3
and 5/6 with the corresponding values of the given function.

Lecture - 01

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Solution of D.E. 1D FEM

Using the concepts from approximation of functions using
piecewise interpolation or shape functions, the weighted
residual statements of D.E. can be formed for the domain:
R R (L$ p ) in (M$ r ) on

W (L$ p)d W
i

(M$ r )d

j N j p d Wi M
Wi L

j Nj r d 0

j 1

We include only the residual in Natural B.C. in formulation at

this stage, since the Essential B.C. can be enforced exactly at
a later stage (just before the solution phase).

Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Solution of D.E. 1D FEM contd.

Using Galerkin type weighted residual formulation, and
choosing the weighting functions for boundary terms:
Wi Wi N i , we get:
W (L$ p )d W i (M$ r )d

j N j p d N i M
Ni L

j Nj r d 0

j 1

We have seen that by using the Weak Formulation (Integration

by parts in 1D), we can cancel the boundary terms
contribution to the stiffness matrix.
The above equations are a set of algebraic equations, which
can be solved for the unknowns, after the assembly and
application of B.C. the unknowns are the nodal values of the
primary variables.
Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Example 1 Solution of Heat Equation

To find the temperature profile in the 1D problem below:
Domain: 0 x 1 m
B.C.: 500K at x 0 and 300K at x 1
Heat Generation: 1000 W/m
Conductance/unit length: 0.5 W m/K

Use four elements of equal length in the domain:

Length of each element: h e x j xi 0.25 m

Governing Differential equation and B.C.:

d 2 Q
L p 2 + 0
dx
k

on 0 x 1

500 0 at x 0
and 300 0 at x 1
Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Shape Functions (1D, Linear) for any element, with nodes i
and j:
xj x xj x
x xi
x xi
Ni

, Nj
e
e
x j xi
h
x j xi
h
Domain discretization and numbering:
N1
1
x1 = 0

Lecture - 02

N2

N3

2
2 3
x2 = 0.25 x3 = 0.5

N4

N5

4
4
x4 = 0.75

5
x5 = 1

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Shape Functions (1D, Linear) for any element, with nodes i
and j:
xj x xj x
x xi
x xi
Ni

, Nj
e
e
x j xi
h
x j xi
h
Galerkin WR Statements (considering the whole domain):

d 2 Q
Ni L p dx 0 Ni dx 2 + k dx
1

d2
Ni
dx 2

Q
j N j + dx 0 for i 1,..., M ,

k
j=1

where M is the total number of nodes (= 5 here).

1

There is no residual at the boundary, since the Dirichlet or

Essential B.C. specified in the problem can be exactly
enforced, just before solving of the algebraic system.
Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Weak Formulation (Integration by parts & changing sign):

dN i dN j
d
j
dx N i

dx
j=1
0 dx dx

dN i dN j
j
dx

j=1
0 dx dx
M

Global Stiffness Matrix

x 1

x 0

Q
N i dx for i 1, 2,..., M
k
0

Q
d
N i dx N i
k
dx
0

x 1

for i 1, 2,..., M
x 0

Global Right-side Vector

Due to the piecewise nature of the interpolation functions, we

can evaluate the integrals as summation of integrals over the
sub-domains (finite elements).
The boundary terms appear only for the elements, which are
adjacent to the boundary (element number 1 has the boundary
node 1 and element number 4 has the boundary node 5).
Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Over the element 1, with nodes 1 and 2:
x2

dN i dN j
1
K ij
dx,
dx dx
x1

Q
d
f i N i dx N i
k
dx
x1

x x1
x2

The shape function N1 corresponds to node 1 (x=x1=0) & N2

corresponds to node 2 (x=x2). Therefore the boundary term
above is non-zero only when i=1. Further, N1=1 at x=x1.
All the elemental contributions can be added to get the global
system, which corresponds to the original W.R. statements
over the domain.
An assembly procedure, similar to that used in the discrete
systems, needs to be followed, to ensure that the elemental
contributions to the W.R. statements are properly added.
Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

In the Matrix form:

K 1

Lecture - 02

dN1
x dx dx
1

dN
1 dN 2
x dx dx dx
1
,
2
x2
x2
dN 2 dN
1

dN 2

dx
dx

x dx dx

dx

x
1
1

x2
Q
d
x N1 k dx dx
1
x x1

x2
Q

x N 2 k dx
1

x2

x2

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Over the element 4, with nodes 4 and 5:

Q
d
f i N i dx N i

k
dx
x4

x x5

x5

x5

dN i dN j
4
K ij
dx,
dx dx
x4

The shape function N4 corresponding to node 4 (x=x4) & N5

corresponding to node 5 (x=x5). Therefore the boundary term
above is non-zero only when i=5. Further, N5=1 at x=x5.
The right-side vector contribution by element 4:

Q
x N 4 k dx
1

f
4

Lecture - 02

x2

N Q dx d
5k

dx
x x 5
x1
x2

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Over any interior element e, with nodes i and j:
xj

e
mn

dN m dN n

dx,
dx dx
xi

xj

Q
f N m dx
k
xi
e
m

In this problem, Stiffness matrix is same for all the elements.

The right-side vector contribution by any interior element:

f i

e
f j

Lecture - 02

Q
x Ni k dx
i

xj
Q
x N j k dx
i

xj

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Results of integration - Stiffness Matrix:
xj

1
dN i
K iie
dx

e 2
dx

xi
h

d x j x
1

dx

x dx
e 2
h
i

xj

xj

1
dN i dN j
e
K ij
dx

e 2
dx
dx

xi
h

xj

1 1 dx
xi

xj

dx
xi

1
e

K
jj
he

1
e

K
ji
he

Right-side vector - assuming heat generation and conductivity

to be uniform:
xj

Q
Q
f i N i dx e
k xi
hk
e

xj

x
xi

x dx

xj

Q
e x j x j xi
h k
2

Lecture - 02

xi

Q x j xi
2h e k

Qh e

f je
2k

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Writing in Matrix form, the elemental contribution for any
interior element is:
Qhe
1
1
e
2
e

h
h
e
e
K k
, f
e
1
1

Qh
he
2
h e
Substituting the values:

4 4
K 0.5

4
4

125
e
& f
125
e

2
2

The stiffness matrix will be same for element 1 & 4, but the
right-side vector will have additional terms (for nodes 1 & 5)
We have to assemble these elemental contributions to obtain a
global system.
Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Assuming a domain discretization and numbering as below:
N1
T1=500 K
1
q1 = ?
x1 = 0

N2

N3

2
2 3
x2 = 0.25 x3 = 0.5

N4

N5

4
4
x4 = 0.75

T5=300 K
5 q5 = ?
x5 = 1

The global system Contribution from element 1:

d
q1 k

2 2 0 0 0 1 125

dx x 0

2 2 0 0 0 125

0
K f 0 0 0 0 0 3 0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0 0 0 0 0 5 0

Vector due to the boundary

terms from integration by parts
Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Adding the Contribution from element 2:

2 2 0
2 4 2

K f 0 2 2

0 0 0
0 0 0

0 0
0 0
0 0

0 0
0 0

1

2
3
0

0

125
q1

250

125

Adding the Contributions from element 3 & 4, the global

system:
2 2 0 0 0 125 q
1

2 4 2 0 0
250

2
K f 0 2 4 2 0 3 250

250
0
0

2
4

0 0 0 2 2 5 125 q5
Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

E.g. 1 Solution of Heat Eqn contd.

Applying the B.C.:

4 2 0 2
2 4 2

3
0 2 4 4

250 2 500

1250

250 250

850
250 2 300

Solving the system:

500 637.5 650 537.5 300

Heat flow at nodes 1 & 5:

q1 2 500 2 637.5 125 400 W

q5 2 537.5 2 300 125 600 W
Home Work: Include convective loss at the rate of qh =
50(-275) W per unit length of the domain (x-direction)
Lecture - 02

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Higher Order Elements

In the previous example, we assumed that any function can be
approximated using piecewise linear shape functions,
provided a sufficient number of elements are used.
If we want to increase the accuracy, we have the option of
increasing the number of elements (reducing the size).
However, it is intuitively obvious that we can get higher
accuracy with the same mesh, if we use quadratic or higher
order polynomials as shape functions.
The finite elements, which are based on such higher order
shape functions are called higher order elements.

Lecture - 03

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

1D Second Order Elements

We can use a similar procedure as earlier to get a quadratic
element the fundamental properties of shape functions are
quite general and should be satisfied in this case also.
To represent any general second order polynomial, we need to
have three trial functions (3 nodes per element).
Hence, if we attach a shape function with a node, we need to
have three nodes per element. In case of 1D, one of this node
has to be internal to the element, while the other two form the
inter-element boundary.
The internal node is generally placed midway between the
end-nodes and therefore called the mid-side node.
There are cases, where the internal nodes are placed at
locations other than mid-point. Examples are quarter point
elements used in fracture mechanics applications (Another
topic for Term Paper).
Lecture - 03

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

1D Second Order Elements contd.

Considering a single 1D element, the quadratic shape
functions can be created as in figure below:

i-1

i-2

Ni

Nj

e-1

Nk

k+1
e+1

k+2

Using Lagrange Interpolation Polynomials, the shape

functions can be obtained as:

Ni

xx xx

,
x x x x
xx xx

Nk
Lecture - 03

xk xi xk xi

Nj

x xi x xk

xi x j xk

&

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

1D Second Order Elements contd.

1 if x xi

N i a bx cx 2 0 if x x j
0 if x x
k

The generalized procedure: Let,

Substituting and writing in matrix form, 1 xi xi 2

2
1
x
x
j
j

1 xk xk 2

Solution (Cramers Rule):

1 xi xi 2
1 1 xi 2
1

2
1
det 0 x j x j 2
det
1
0
x
det
j

2
2
0 xk xk
1 0 x k
1

a
,b
&c
2
2
1 xi xi
1 xi xi

det 1 x j x j 2
det
1
x
x
j

j
det 1
1 xk xk 2
1 xk x k 2

Lecture - 03

a

b
c

1

0
0

xi
xj
x k

1
0
0

xi
xj
xk

xi 2
2
xj
xk 2

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

1D Second Order Elements contd.

Verify that we get the same expressions for the shape
functions as we guessed initially.
Whether the sum of all the shape functions at any point inside
the element is unity?
We can extend the same methodology for creating cubic or
even higher order shape functions. A 1D cubic element should
have 4 nodes 2 end-nodes and 2 internal nodes. What should
be the position of internal nodes?
Interpolation (trial) functions of any order for C0 continuous
elements can be generated using Lagrange Interpolation
Polynomials and hence these are called Lagrangian Family of
finite elements.
We can use functions other than the polynomials as shape
functions. For example, the harmonic shape functions used in
axisymmetric elements with non-axisymmetric loads (Another
topic for Term Paper).
Lecture - 03

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Continuity of Shape Functions

What order of continuity is required for the shape functions?
Consider the case of finding the solution of D.E. subject to
certain B.C. as earlier. Writing the W.R. statement:
R R (L$ p ) in (M$ r ) on
W (L$ p )d W i (M$ r )d

j N j p d Wi M
Wi L

j 1

j Nj r d 0

j 1

In the previous problem, we have assumed the field variable

to be continuous everywhere, while the derivatives are
continuous only within the element.
The significant question is, what order of continuity we need
to ensure for the shape functions, to solve a general D.E.?
Lecture - 04

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Continuity of Shape Functions contd.

Let us consider the inter-element continuity (near junction A),
of three types of shape functions:
Nm

Nm

Nm

A
A
dNm/dx

dNm/dx

A
A

d Nm/dx
2

A
Lecture - 04

dNm/dx

d2Nm/dx2
A

d3Nm/dx3
A

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Continuity of Shape Functions contd.

To evaluate the WR integrals, it is desirable to avoid infinite
values of the integrands.

In other words, if: L or M contain derivatives of order s,

then, we should have continuity of s -1 derivatives
of shape functions.
We call this as Cs-1 continuity requirement for shape function
or in general, the problem as Cs-1 continuous problem.
Think of the advantage we are getting by using the Weak
Formulation.
The strong form of the heat transfer equation is a C1
continuous problem, while the weak form is C0 continuous
problem.
An example of C1 continuous problem, even after the weak
formulation, is the beam or plate bending problem.
Lecture - 04

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Analysis of Beam Bending

Assuming the deflections to be small, the governing D.E. of
the bending of cantilever shown below is:

d 4w
EI 4 q 0
dx
Where: E is the Youngs modulus, I is the second moment of
area of C.S. of beam, q is the loading per unit length and w
is the vertical deflection.
If the length of the beam is L, the weighted residual
formulation can be written as:

d 4 w
0 Wi EI dx 4 q dx 0
L

Lecture - 04

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Analysis of Beam Bending contd.

Integrating by parts:

d w
Wi EI 3
dx

L
dW i
d 3 w

EI 3 dx Wi qdx 0
dx
dx
0
0
L

Integrating by parts again to obtain the weak form:

d w
Wi EI 3
dx

dW i
d w

EI 2
dx
dx
0
2

L
d 2 w
d 2Wi

EI 2 dx Wi qdx 0
2
dx

dx
0
0
L

Second order derivatives appear even in the weak form.

Hence to avoid infinite values, the inter-element continuity of
first order derivatives should be ensured.
Further, for the convenience of applying B.C.s etc., the slope
also is made as a primary variable, along with the deflection.
Hence, there are two d.o.f. per node.
Lecture - 04

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Analysis of Beam Bending contd.

The displacement vector:

The shape functions:

w1

1

w2
2

3x 2 2 x3
N1 1 2 3
L
L

1
1

1
Lecture - 04

1

2

3
4

2x 2 x 3
N2 x
2
L
L
3x 2 2 x3
N1 2 3
L
L
x 2 x3
N2 2
L L

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Analysis of Beam Bending contd.

Using Galerkin method, we get:

d w
N i EI 3
dx

dN i
d w

EI 2
dx
dx

d 2 Ni

2
dx
0

d2
EI 2 N j j dx N i qdx 0
dx

Expressing in the usual notations:

2

d
N j
d Ni
e
K ij
EI
dx
2
2

dx
dx
0
L

&

f i e N i qdx Boundary Terms

0

Lecture - 04

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Analysis of Beam Bending contd.

The elemental stiffness matrix terms can be obtained as:
2

d
3x
2x
e
K11 EI
1 2 3
2
dx
L
L
0
L

6 6 x
dx EI 2 3 dx
L L
0

36 72 x 36 x
36 x 36 x 12 x
EI 4 5 6 dx EI 4 5 6
L
L
L
L
L
L

0
12 EI
36 36 12
EI 3 2 3 3
L
L L L
L

Similarly, we can get:

L

2
2
d
N
d
N2
4 6 x
6 6 x
e
1
K 21 EI
dx EI 2 3 2 dx
2
2
dx dx
L L
L L
0
0

24 x 30 x 12 x
3 4 5
L
L
L
2

Lecture - 04

6 EI
2
L

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Analysis of Beam Bending contd.

Calculating all other terms, we get the stiffness matrix as:

K e

6 L 12 6 L
12

2
2
EI 6 L 4 L 6 L 2 L
3
L 12 6 L 12 6 L

2
2
6 L 2 L 6 L 4 L

As in many of the earlier cases, we have a symmetric stiffness

matrix.
Why the elements in a row or column do not add to give zero?

Lecture - 04

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Analysis of Beam Bending contd.

Boundary terms:

d w
N i EI 3
dx

&
0

dN i
d w
EI 2
dx
dx
2

The natural B.C. are obtained by equating these terms to zero.

Equating the first term to zero:

d 3 w
EI 3 0 Shear force is zero at the end.
dx
Equating the second term to zero:

d 2 w
EI 2 0 Bending Moment is zero at the end.
dx
The remaining part of the problem is left as home work for the
student. Solve a sample problem by assuming suitable data.
Lecture - 04

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut

Concluding Remarks
In this chapter we developed the fundamental idea of FEM,
i.e., Piecewise defined trial functions, after discretizing the
domain into finite elements.
We first applied this concept to approximation of known
functions and then for the solution of differential equations,
both in 1D.
By specifying the properties of the trial functions, we could
directly solve for the nodal values of the unknown variable
and obtain the global stiffness matrix to be sparse.
We discussed the idea of higher order trial functions
(elements) and the continuity requirements.
However, all these discussions were limited to 1D, were the
geometry is trivial. The real power of FEM appears in 2D or
3D problems, were simultaneous approximation of the field
variable and the geometry is required.
Lecture - 04