EEE220 Lecture 2

Instrumentation and Control System
: Lecture 2
Instructor: Sanghyuk Lee

Sanghyuk.Lee@xjtlu.edu.cn
Tel: 8816-1415
Instrumentation and Control system
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Temperature Measurement transducers

Thermoelectric temperature transducers (thermocouples)
These rely on the fact that if two different electrical conducting materials are brought into electrical contact
then a contact potential will be created across the interface.
It occurs because the electrons are 'stacked' in the available energy levels to different maximum energies in
each material .
conductor A
conductor B
conductor B
conductor A
when joined, electrons

can move across
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This contact potential cannot be directly measured with a voltmeter, because compensating contact potentials(V1,
V3) are created where the voltmeter is connected.
conductor A
V3
V
V2
V1
conductor B
conductor C
We find that V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
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If both ends of conductors A and B are joined together, two inter-metallic contacts are formed.
conductor A
Tref
V(Tref)
V(Tunknown)
T unknown
conductor B
No net potential difference will be produced in the circuit provided both junctions are at the same
temperature.
However, if one is at a different temperature than the other, a potential difference will occur and can be
measured.
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Rules of Thermocouples
Rule 1
If a third metal is introduced into the circuit, the net voltage is not affected, provided both junctions of the third
metal are at the same temperature.
Thermocouple voltage measurement arrangement 1
conductor A
1
Tref
V(Tunknown)
V(Tref)
T unknown
conductor B
V
T
meter
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Thermocouple calibration table

In a practical calibration, one junction would be kept at a known reference temperature, Tref, (usually 0C) and the
other held at a known temperature and the voltage measured
Nickel-chromium/copper-nickel (Type E) thermocouple with reference temperature 0 deg.C. Emf (in mV).
__________________________________________________________________________________
T (deg.C)
______________________________________________________________________
20
1.19
1.25
1.31
1.37
1.43
1.49
1.56
1.62
1.68
1.74
30
1.80
1.86
1.92
1.98
2.04
2.10
2.17
2.23
2.29
2.35
40
2.41
2.48
2.54
2.60
2.66
2.72
2.79
2.85
2.90
2.98
50
3.05 3.11 3.17
3.23
3.30
3.36
3.43
3.49
3.55
3.61
60
3.68 3.74
3.81
3.87
3.94
4.00
4.07
4.13
4.20
4.27
70
4.34 4.40
4.47
4.53
4.60
4.66
4.73
4.79
4.86
4.92
80
4.99 5.05
5.12
5.19
5.26
5.32
5.39
5.45
5.52
5.59
90
5.66 5.72
5.79
5.85
5.92
5.98
6.05
6.12
6.19
6.25
100
6.32 6.39
6.46
6.52
6.59
110
7.01 7.07
7.14
7.21
7.28
7.35
7.42
7.48
7.55
7.62
120
7.69 7.76
7.83
7.90
7.97
8.04
8.11 8.18
8.25
8.32
6.66
6.73
6.80
6.80
6.94
______________________________________________________________________
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Thermocouple voltage measurement

arrangement 2
In practice the following, more convenient, circuit may be used:
In either case, according to the first rule of thermocouples, the voltmeter will correctly read the thermocouple
voltage difference provided the junctions created by adding the meter are kept at the same, known temperature
(Tref) and the voltmeter reading is corrected/compensated if T ref is not equal to 0C
conductor A
V3
V2
V1
unknown
conductor B
conductor C
Tref
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Thermocouple voltage correction

Note that if the reference junction is not at 0C, a correction will need to be made in order to use the
calibration table
To do this, we note the 2nd rule of thermocouples:
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Thermocouple Rules (continued)

Rule 2
If a thermocouple has an output voltage of V ab when its junctions are at temperatures T a and Tb and an
output voltage of Vbc when its junctions are at Tb and Tc, then its output voltage will be V ab + Vbc when its
Thermocouple voltage
junctions are at Ta and Tc.
Vbc
Vac
Vab
Ta
Tb
Tc
Temperature
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Correction for thermocouples with reference temperature not at 0C
Vbc
Vac
Vab
Temperature
Ta
0 C
Tb
Tc
temperature to be measured
Actual reference temperature
Let Ta = 0C , Tb = actual reference junction temperature and Tc = the temperature to be measured, T unknown
1)
Look up Vab from the Table
2)
Add it to the measured voltage Vbc to give Vac
3) Use Vac to obtain the unknown temperature from the Table
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Example 1
A type E thermocouple was used to measure the oil temperature of an engine. Its reference junction was at an
ambient temperature of 20C. If an output voltage of 2.65mV was recorded, what was the temperature of the oil?
Output voltage measured with reference at 20C
Voltage to be added to bring reference to

Vbc
0C
Vac
Vab
Temperature
Ta
0 C
Tb
Tc
Oil temperature
Actual reference temperature 20 C
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Solution
From Table 1, the voltage produced by a type E thermocouple with one junction at 0C and the other at 20C is 1.19mV.
The observed output voltage was 2.65mV. The total output voltage that would have been produced had the reference
junction been at 0C is therefore:
Vac
= Vab + Vbc = 1.19 + 2.65 = 3.84 mV.
This corresponds to an oil temperature of 62.5C
Nickel-chromium/copper-nickel (Type E) thermocouple with reference temperature 0 deg.C. Emf (in mV).
__________________________________________________________________________________
T (deg.C)
______________________________________________________________________
20
1.19
1.25
1.31
1.37
1.43
1.49
1.56
1.62
1.68
1.74
30
1.80
1.86
1.92
1.98
2.04
2.10
2.17
2.23
2.29
2.35
40
2.41
2.48
2.54
2.60
2.66
2.72
2.79
2.85
2.90
2.98
50
3.05 3.11 3.17
3.23
3.30
3.36
3.43
3.49
3.55
3.61
60
3.68 3.74
3.81
3.87
3.94
4.00
4.07
4.13
4.20
4.27
70
4.34 4.40
4.47
4.53
4.60
4.66
4.73
4.79
4.86
4.92
80
4.99 5.05
5.12
5.19
5.26
5.32
5.39
5.45
5.52
5.59
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Note if the reference temperature had been below 0C, then the correction voltage would have been subtracted
Measured output voltage Vbc
Vbc
Voltage to be subtracted from

observed thermocouple output
Vab
Tb
Tb = Tref = -20C
Ta
Tc
Ta = 0C
Temperature
Oil temp ( to be found)
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Cold junction compensation

A solution to the problem of controlling a reference junction temperature is to use a 'cold-junction compensator'.
This is an integrated circuit that monitors the temperature of the reference junction, (which is allowed to adopt the
ambient temperature), and then introduces an appropriate voltage into the circuit to produce the total voltage that
would have occurred had a reference junction temperature been used and held at 0 C. The chip will often also
amplify the thermoelectric voltage.
Example
LT1025 Features 80mA Supply Current 4V to 36V Operation
0.5C Initial Accuracy (A Version) Compatible with Standard Thermocouples (E, J, K, R, S, T)
14
etc.
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Thermocouple materials
International standards have been established for thermocouple materials. These are covered in this
country by BS4937: 1973 - 74 International Thermocouple Reference Tables. Some of the most
common thermocouples covered by the standard are:-
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Thermocouple materials
Designated type Conductor A
Conductor B
Useful range
90% platinum
0 - 1400
deg C
Type S
platinum
10% rhodium
Type R
platinum
87% platinum
0 - 1400
13% rhodium
Type J
iron
copper nickel
Type K
nickel chromium nickel aluminium
-200 - 1100
Type T
copper
-250 - 400
Type E
nickel chromium copper nickel
Type B
70% platinum 94% platinum
copper nickel
-200 - 850
-200 - 850
0 1500
30% rhodium 6% rhodium
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Extension wires
The measuring instrument or display is often required to be remote from the location of the unknown temperature being
measured, The use of ordinary copper wires to connect the thermocouple would mean that those junctions become the
new reference junction and its temperature would need to be known and the two junctions kept at the same temperature.
conductor A
V3
V2
T unknown
V1
conductor B
Tref
conductor C
One solution is to use very long lengths of thermocouple wire.
This is very expensive!!
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Extension wire A
conductor A
V3
V1
V2
T unknown
conductor B
Tref
Extension wire B
A lower cost alternative is to use extension wires of an appropriate composition such that no contact potentials are
created at the junction with the actual thermocouple wires, but can be manufactured less expensively
This can be done because the extension wires only have to match to the thermocouple wires over a much smaller
range of temperatures (corresponding to the temperature of the junctions between the thermocouple and extension
wires)
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Measurement of thermocouple voltage

The voltage is typically only a few millivolts and should be measured using a high impedance system. If an
amplifier is used, must also have a low offset voltage and thermal drift. An example circuit is as follows:-
V out
T (unknown)
R1
T (ref)
R2
Voltage gain = (R1+R2)/R1
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Gefran thermocouples cover all the most common types of

temperature sensors, from low-temperature versions to
versions with platinum thermoelectric couple and ceramic
sheathing
http://www.gefranonline.com/en/tecnologies/tecnology_10.aspx
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Gefran also produces thermocouples in the three tolerance

classes (1, 2 and 3) in conformity to IEC 60584-2 standards
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Resistance thermometers
Two types
- metallic resistance, e.g. platinum,

- semiconductor, e.g. oxides of chromium,
tungsten, nickel.
cobalt, nickel (thermistors).
Metallic resistance thermometers are wire wound or thin-film and have small positive temperature coefficient
of resistance, , defined as:-
RT = R0( 1 + T )
==============
where T is in deg. C.
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RT = R0( 1 + T )
Coefficient of temperature depends on the type of

metal used to make the resistance thermometer. The
material most often used to make metal resistance
thermometers is platinum (Pt), due to its high resistance
to oxidation, its electrical resistivity, and reproducibility
in a wide variety of applications. The most common
elements have a value of 100 ohm at 0C, and are
therefore called Pt100. They can be made as follows:
with wire wound on a glass or ceramic isolating substrate
and encapsulated in glass for normal applications with

temperatures usually up to 300C
with wire contained in a ceramic or aluminium isolating
capsule for applications with temperatures that may exceed
500C
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http://www.gefranonline.com/en/tecnologies/tecnology_35.aspx
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Metallic Resistance thermometers

Material
resistivity
(ohm. m)
(per C)
___________________________________________
Copper
Platinum
Tungsten
1.68 x 10
-8
0.0068 Nichrome (Ni,Fe,Cr alloy)

-8
10.6 x 10
0.0039
-8
5.6 x 10
0.0045
100 x 10
-8
0.0004
In practice, this linear equation is only approximately valid over a limited temperature range.
Source: Giancoli, Douglas C., Physics, 4th Ed, Prentice Hall, (1995).
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Metallic Resistance thermometers

measurement system
The resistance change is often very small so the measurement is normally based on a resistance bridge:-
R2
R1
Vs
V
R4
R3
T (unknown)
Note that the connecting wire resistances appear in two arms of the bridge in such a way that their effect on the bridge balance will
cancel. Known as four-wire connection.
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Semiconductor Resistance thermometers

Thermistors
Semiconductor materials show a strong negative temperature coefficient of resistance given by:-
RT = Aexp(B/T)
where A and B are constants for a given material and T is absolute temperature, deg. K.
Transducers made from these materials are known as thermistors
B is called the characteristic temperature of the thermistor and is typically 2000 deg.K to 4000 deg.K.
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Typical resistance/temperature dependence

T C
RT ohms
_____________________
0
350 000
25
100 000
50
34 000
100
6 000
150
1 600
200
550
250
240
300
110
Often the resistance R0 at a given temperature T0 is specified. Then since R0 = A exp( B/T0), the thermistor equation can be
written:-
A exp B
RT
T
R0 A exp B
T
0
1 1
RT R0 exp B
T T0
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Wheat stone Bridge-Voltage Mode NTC Thermistor
The circuit in Figure 1 produces an output voltage that is linear within +0.06 from 25 to
45; this is achieved by the selection of R2 and R3. The value of R1 is selected to best
provide linearization of the 10K ohm thermistor over the 25 to 45 temperature range
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http://www.octsensors.com/ntc04/application/application.htm
http://www.ametherm.com/thermistor/
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http://tcomega.com/temperature/
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Measurement of strain
Resistance gauges are normally used. The resistance value of a conductor is given by:R = L / A
where
= resistivity,
L= length of conductor
A = cross-sectional area through which the current flows.
Material resistivity,
Area, A
Length, L
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When stretched by the application of tensile forces, all of these factors change.
increases, L increases and A decreases. Thus the fractional change in resistance is greater than the strain applied (i.e.
the fractional change in length) by a factor of (typically) between 2 and 3
This is known as the 'gauge factor'.

Thus:- R/R = Ge
where e = strain = L/L
Area, A - A
Material resistivity, +
Length, L + L
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In practice the conductor would be concertinaed to reduce its overall length and allow a much more localised
measurement of the strain.
This gives rise to a cross sensitivity.

Sensing axis
Cross axis
sensitivity
They are manufactured using thin film photographic methods to miniaturise the gauge and corners are thickened to
reduce the cross sensitivity
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Bridge balancing schemes

Apex Balancing
Parallel balancing
Rg1
Rg1
Rg3
Rg3
Vs
Vs
Rg2
Rg4
Rg2
Rg4
Not all the gauges are necessarily active in sensing strain.
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Bridge Balancing, Offset Nulling When a bridge is

installed, it is very unlikely that the bridge will output
exactly zero volts when no strain is applied. Rather,
slight variations in resistance among the bridge arms
and lead resistance will generate some nonzero initial
offset voltage.
There are a few different ways that a system can handle
this initial offset voltage.
i) Software Compensation: compensates for the initial
voltage in software. If the offset is large enough, it limits
the amplifier gain that can be applied to the output
voltage, thus limiting the dynamic range of the
measurement.
ii) Offset-Nulling Circuit: uses an adjustable resistance, or
potentiometer, to physically adjust the output of the
bridge to zero
iii) Buffered Offset Nulling: a nulling circuit adds an
adjustable DC voltage to the output of the
instrumentation amplifier
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Single active gauge plus one 'dummy'

gauge
Used to measure tensile strain and provide temperature compensation
T
Rg1 (dummy)
Rg1
R1
Vs
Rg2
(active)
R2
Rg2
Note that temperature changes affect both gauges but this does not affect the bridge balance. Longitudinal strain
however, only affects Rg2 (assuming Rg1 cross-sensitivity is negligible) and this produces an out of balance voltage
from the bridge.
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Analysis
Treat each half of the bridge separately and replace with its Thevenin equivalent circuit
Rg1.Rg2/(Rg1 + Rg2)
R1.R2/(R1 + R2)
A
Vs. Rg2/(Rg1 + Rg2)
L.H. side
Vs. R2/(R1 + R2)
R.H. side
Vout = VA - VB
= Vs[Rg2/(Rg1 + Rg2) - R2 /(R1 + R2)] (under open circuit conditions)
= 0 at original balance.
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Note that a temperature change will cause the same fractional change to both Rg1 and Rg2 so that the ratio Rg2/(Rg1 +
Rg2) is unaffected.
However, strain causes Rg2 to become Rg2 + Rg2
= Rg2(1 + Rg2/Rg2)
= Rg2(1 + Ge)
Therefore,
Vout = Vs[Rg2(1 + Ge)/(Rg1 + Rg2(1 + Ge)) - R2 /(R1 + R2)]
so if Rg1 = Rg2 = Rg and R1 = R2

Then,
Vout = Vs[Rg(1 + Ge)/(Rg + Rg(1 + Ge)) 1/2]

= Vs[(1 + Ge)/(2 + Ge) - 1/2]
= Vs Ge/[2(2 + Ge)] Vs Ge/4
Note the taking into account the effect of Poissons Ratio gives
Vout
VS 1 Ge
4
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Two active gauges and two 'dummy' gauges

T
Rg1 (dummy)
Rg1
Rg4 (dummy)
Rg3
(active)
Rg2
(active)
Rg3
Vs
A
Rg4
Rg2
Note the position of the gauges in the bridge are chosen so that :-
1)
their effects reinforce one another to give double the output voltage of a single active gauge bridge
Vout
2)
Temperature compensation is achieved.
VS 1 Ge
2
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Four active gauges - Bending strain
Rg1
Rg4
Rg1
Rg3
Vs
A
Rg2
Rg3
Rg4
Rg2
Note the position of the gauges in the bridge are chosen so that :-
1)
their effects reinforce one another to give four times the output voltage of a single active gauge bridge
Vout VS Ge
2)
Temperature compensation is achieved.
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Amplification of the bridge output voltage

Note the even the four active gauge bridge typically only produces a very small output voltage.
For example, for a four active gauge bridge, Vout = Vs Ge

If e = 1 strain = 10
-6
, Vs = 10 volts , G = 2.2 , then
-5
Vout = 2.2 x 10
= 22 microvolts
Typically the elastic limit of metals might be reached by around 10000 strain so even then the output is only 0.22
volts
Note that there is a limit to the size of the supply voltage that can be used because of the power dissipation in the
strain gauges.
2
2
Typically the resistance of the gauge is 200, so if Vs = 10 volts , the power dissipation in the gauge is V /R = (10/2) /200
= 0.125 watts
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There are three possible amplifier configurations
1)
Non-inverting
Vin
V out
Vout R1 R 2
Vin
R1
R2
R1
Voltage gain = (R1+R2) / R1
2)
Inverting
Vout
R2
Vin
R1
V out
Vin
R2
R1
Voltage gain = - R2 / R1
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3)
R2
Vin ' Vin 1.
R1 R 2
Differential
R1
Vin1
V out
R2
Vin2
R1
R2
Vout Vin1 .
R
1
R
2
Vout
R2
R1 R 2
R2
.
V
.
in 2
R
1
R
1
R2
Vin1 Vin 2
R1
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So full strain gauge bridge with built-in amplifier is:
Rf
Rg1
Vs/2
Rg3
Vs/2
Rg2
Rg4
Rf
Vout = Vs G e{Rf / [Rg1Rg2/(Rg1 + Rg2)]}

= 2Vs G e Rf/Rg
assuming Rg1 = Rg2 = Rg3 = Rg4= Rg and four active gauges
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http://www.omega.com/Literature/Transactions/volume3/strain2.html
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Strain-sensing materials, such as copper,

change their internal structure at high
temperatures. Temperature can alter not only
the properties of a strain gage element, but
also can alter the properties of the base
material to which the strain gage is attached.
Differences in expansion coefficients between
the gage and base materials may cause
dimensional changes in the sensor element.
Copper-nickel alloys have gage factors that
are relatively sensitive to operating
temperature variations, making them the
most popular choice for strain gage materials.
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Measurement of displacement
Basically resistive, capacitive, inductive/magnetic, optical and acoustic.
Resistive
Linear or rotary potentiometers can be adapted to measure displacement, possibly through mechanical gearing and linkages. The
displacement is registered as a change in the current flowing (variable resistance) or more commonly as a change in the voltage
tapped (potentiometer).
e.g. fuel tank gauge
Vs
Fuel tank
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There are three possible sources of error additional to that inherent in the transducer itself (i.e. its resolution,
linearity of windings, temperature effects etc.):-
Loading of measurement system

This affects the linearity of the measurement, which if not allowed for will produce an error.
Vs.r2/(r1 + r2)
r1.r2/(r1 + r2)
r1
Vs
R
+
r2
V
transducer circuit
Vm
Rm
Vm
Thevenin equivalent
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The equivalent voltage varies proportionately with wiper position
Vout
r2
r
Vs . 2
Vs .
R
r1 r2
(r1 + r2 = R = constant).
However, there is a series resistance in the equivalent circuit that also varies. Thus the % error in the output
voltage will be:-
Vout
Rm
100
1
Vout
Rm r1.r2 / R
[ Derive this result !]
where Rm = resistance of measurement system.

If the resistance of the measurement system is high enough (Rm >> r1.r2/R) then it has negligible effect on the voltage. However, if not
then its effect becomes especially noticeable in mid-range of the potentiometer travel. (Note that r1.r2/R = 0 at top and bottom of travel
since either r1 or r2 is zero at those points and is a maximum when r1 = r2). This effect causes linearity errors.
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Sources of error
1. Linearity error due to electrical loading

output
Maximum error
100%
theoretical
100%
4 Rm
Questions:
response
1)
What is the approximation

being made?
effect of measurement system

loading
2)
What is the max % error FSD?
100%
displacement
2. Voltage stabilisation
The measured voltage depends on the stability of the voltage source used to supply the transducer. Variations cause
repeatability errors.
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3. Parasitic resistances
This is particularly noticeable if the transducer is a long way from where the power supply is located and if the transducer
resistance is small.
Output voltage
r
Vs
error
Vs
V
error
100%
displacement
Thus the actual voltage recorded is changed by the addition of the (unintended) parasitic resistances r. Note that if the resistance
of the meter is high then the effect of r in series with it is negligible. The values of r in the top and bottom lines however, cause both
zero and sensitivity errors.
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Capacitance displacement transducers
These use the fact that the capacitance of a system depends on:C = 0 .r. A/W
which for the simple parallel plate system corresponds to

r = dielectric permittivity
A = area of plate overlap
dielectric
W = plate separation
Any one of these three can be made to vary by the

plates
displacement.
Note that only variation of r and area give linear responses (but see later)
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Cylindrical capacitor transducer
This is a cylindrical transducer in which the displacement being measured causes the area of electrode overlap (and hence
capacitance) to change.
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The effect of wiring capacitance
These systems have the problem that the wiring capacitance also adds to the total capacitance measured (it is in
parallel) and this can vary from one installation to another.
C transducer
C wiring
Also a small change in capacitance due to small displacements are difficult to resolve when superimposed on that of the
wiring. One solution to this is to use plate separation (W) to measure the displacement instead of area or dielectric
constant change.
The resulting change in capacitance (C) for a given displacement (W) is relatively large, but gives a non-linear response.
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The differential capacitance transducer
The response can be made linear by using a differential capacitance transducer.
three plates
centre plate movable
C1
C2
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The differential capacitance bridge
R
Vs =
C1
V.sin(wt)
Va
Vb
Vo
C2
For the parallel plate example, where the central electrode moves:Vo = Vb - Va
= Vs.(1/jC2)/(1/j C1 +1/j C2) - Vs/2
= Vs. {C1/(C1 + C2) - 1/2}
When the movable electrode is in the central position, C1 = C2 and Vo = 0.
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When the central electrode is displaced by x, say to the right, then:-
C1 = o . r . A/(w + x)
C2 = o . r . A/(w - x)
so the output voltage becomes:Vo = Vs. [{o. r. A/(w + x)}/{o. r .A/(w + x) + o. r .A/(w - x)} -1/2]
= Vs. [ {1/(w + x)}/{1/(w + x) + 1/(w - x)} - 1/2]
= Vs.[ (w - x)/{(w - x) + (w + x)} - 1/2]
= Vs. [(w - x)/2w - 1/2]
= - Vs. x/2w
Thus the output is linear in x and the -Vo sign indicates that the output will be 180deg out of phase with the input, Vs.
If the displacement was in the -x direction, the output is also linear with x but is in phase with the input Vs.
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So the magnitude of the output voltage tells is how far the centre electrode has moved, whilst its phase relative to the input
voltage VS tells us which way it moved.
We need a phase-sensitive detector to fully interpret the output of the bridge.
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EEE 220
Concentric plate differential capacitance transducer

This type of capacitance transducer uses variation of area overlap
Question:
Assuming this transducer is used in the
capacitance bridge shown earlier,
concentric cylinders
1)
is the output of the bridge linear

with the displacement x?
2)
Does the phase indicate the

direction of the displacement?
C1
C2
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EEE 220
Electro-magnetic transducers
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Very common, especially in applications where high reliability is important [ because there are no moving electrical
contacts ]. It basically consists of three coils in line, two outer coils acting as the secondary of a transformer and one central
coil acting as the primary.
Vs
Vo
Modified by VK Liau
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EEE 220
With the plunger in the centre, voltages are induced equally in both outer coils. The two outer coils are connected in
phase opposition, so the voltages cancel and VO = 0.
v1
v2
vO=v1+v2
Vs
vS
v1
v2
Vo
vO
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EEE 220
A displacement moves the rod in relation to the coils and causes the ac voltage applied to the central primary coil to be coupled into
the outer coils unequally and this difference is detected as the signal output. The phase of the output indicates the direction in which
the displacement occurs
v1
vO=v1+v2
v2
vS
v1
v2
Vo
vO
vO=v1+v2
v2
v1
vS
v1
v2
Vo
vO
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EEE 220
System diagram
LVDT
Oscillator
reference
(typically 5kHz)
D C input
phase
sensitive
detector
Vs
oscillator
(typ 5kHz)
LVDT
low pass
filter
output
PSD
64
DC
EEE 220
The Phase Sensitive Detector
signal
Amp
Multiplier
o/p
Filter
reference
signal
reference
signal
+
-
reference
+
-
+
-
+
-
|Vo| is a maximum
when = 0 or 180
multiplier
output
filter output
Vo is zero when =
multiplier
output
filter output
65
90 or 270
signal
Amp
Multiplier
EEE 220
o/p
Filter
reference
signal
Thus the output has a magnitude proportional to
Vs.cos
reference
+
-
where is the phase shift between the signal and the
+
-
reference.
This provides the directional information as well as the

magnitude of the displacement.
multiplier
output
filter output
66
signal
Amp
Multiplier
EEE 220
o/p
Filter
reference
The choice of the filter time constant is a compromise between
i)
ii)
The need to smooth the rectified ac waveform to produce a dc output

The need to allow an adequate response to transients in the quantity being measured (i.e. the measurand in
measurement systems).
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EEE 220
Level measurement Example aircraft fuel tank gauges
tank
Capacitance transducers - concentric cylinders
Fuel gauge senders are capacitor transducers that consist of concentric tubular electrodes from top to bottom of the tank. They are
distributed at various locations within the fuel tank and connected in parallel. The capacitance is caused to vary by the dielectric
constant of aviation fuel being greater than that of air (r 2)
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EEE 220
The capacitance of each sender is dependant on the amount of fuel occupying the space between the electrodes. The
senders are connected in parallel so even if the tank is inclined (as the aircraft banks), the total capacitance remains the
same, so the reading of fuel content is unaffected even works if flying upside-down !!)
69
EEE 220
Advantages of capacitance transducer in this application:
1)
No moving electric contacts very reliable and safe
2)
Output of assembly is unaffected by fuel movement within the tank
3)
Sensors can be designed to accommodate irregularly shaped tanks e.g. wings ! to give linear or non-linear
sensitivity
Disadvantages/problems:
1)
Needs ac supply and capacitance bridge system - expensive
2)
Dielectric constant of aviation fuel varies depending on purity and additives. Solution to this is to include additional senders
(compensation probes) located at the bottom of the tank so usually immersed in fuel that are able to compensate for the
fuel variation.
3)
The capacitance of the wiring must be taken into account in calibration
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EEE 220
Compensation probes
Fuel level probes
Wiring
harness
71
EEE 220
Optical shaft encoders

These are used to measure rotary angle or RPM.
Optical versions obtain their signal output by means of a light source that shines through clear regions in a rotating disk
attached to the shaft, allowing light to fall onto a photo-detector.
They are of two types:- incremental or absolute.
Incremental shaft encoder
These detect a change in angle rather than a measurement of absolute angular position. Moire fringe transducers are
of the incremental type and use two discs patterned as shown below:.
n segments
n + 1 segments
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EEE 220
A
Photo-detectors A and B detect the passing of a Moire fringe created by the

discs and produce anti-phase voltages because they are arranged
diametrically opposite to each other across the disc. The output voltages are
subtracted from each other so the out of phase signal voltages reinforce
output
each other whilst common mode dc voltages cancel.
SignalA A
The output signal is often squared off by clipping the output voltage
waveform for subsequent processing (see below)
angle
angle
Similar systems based on the Moire fringe principle are used to detect for
linear translations.
output
SignalB B
angle
angle
output
-B
SignalA Aoutput from
Output from
squarer circuit
squaring circuit
angle
angle
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EEE 220
Moire fringe
Moire fringe
74
EEE 220
Moire fringe - demo
75
EEE 220
Moire fringe - demo
Moire fringe
76
EEE 220
Sensing the direction of rotation (incremental rotary encoders)
To allow detection of the direction of rotation, two pairs of photo-detectors are used.
A
e.g. moving
disk rotates
anti-clockwise
Y
B
As the Moire fringe produced by the two disks rotates,
output
the squared-up signals from each pair of photo-
from A - B
detectors are 90 degrees out of phase with each other
180
360
degrees
A
Moire fringe position
X
B
output
The Moire fringe rotates in the opposite direction to
from Y - X
that of the moving disk
degrees
One complete revolution of the Moire fringe corresponds to the movement of the rotating disk from one line to the next on the static grating high
resolution possible
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EEE 220
Sensing the direction of rotation anti-clockwise

(incremental rotary encoders)
output
from A - B
0
180
360
degrees
A
Moire fringe position
X
B
output
from Y - X
degrees
A-B
X-Y
Monostable
differentiator
and diode clip
The output is a series of pulses for

this rotation direction
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EEE 220
Sensing the direction of rotation clockwise

(incremental rotary encoders)
output
from A - B
0
180
360
degrees
A
Y
X
B
output
from Y - X
degrees
A-B
X-Y
Monostable
differentiator
and diode clip
The output is a constant voltage for

this rotation direction
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EEE 220
Optical shaft encoders

Absolute optical rotation sensors
Another class of optical rotary displacement transducer detects the rotation in absolute terms,
i.e. in terms of angular position. This requires an appropriately coded disk. Consider for example a simple two track disk.
00
01
msb track
lsb track
The simple binary coded disk suffers from the possibility of a

false reading occurring momentarily when the output from the
Glitch
possible
here
Glitch
possible
here
11
two photo-sensors are supposed to change simultaneously.

In practice, the outputs may not change at precisely the same
instant, giving a false reading ('glitch').
10
80
EEE 220
To overcome this problem two methods can be employed.

valid
valid
valid
00
01
11
10
valid
The first involves an additional track and photo-sensor to

indicate to the decode logic when the data is valid.
valid
valid
valid
valid
00
01
msb
The second retains the two track scheme but codes the disk in such a
lsb
way that no two tracks are required to change simultaneously. (A Graycoded disk)
11
10
81
EEE 220
Note that a Gray code sequence can be generated by:-
1)
place the sequence 0, 1 one above the other
2)
draw a mirror line below
3)
repeat the 0, 1 sequence as a mirror image in the mirror line and add a 0 prefix to the codes above the line and
a 1 prefix to those below the line.
4)
repeat 2 & 3 until the required number of bits is reached to obtain the solution needed
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EEE 220
Gray code construction

step 1
step 2
step 3
step 4
00
000
0000
01
001
0001
11
011
0011
10
010
0010
-------
--------110
0110
111
0111
101
0101
100
0100
-------1100
etc.
83
Instrumentation and Control Systems

: Lecture 2
End of Lecture 2
84

EEE220 Lecture 2

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EEE220 Lecture 2

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Instrumentation and Control System

Instructor: Sanghyuk Lee

Instrumentation and Control system

Temperature Measurement transducers

when joined, electrons

Instrumentation and Control system

Instrumentation and Control system

Instrumentation and Control system

Thermocouple voltage measurement arrangement 1

Instrumentation and Control system

Thermocouple calibration table

3.05 3.11 3.17

Instrumentation and Control system

Thermocouple voltage measurement

Instrumentation and Control system

Thermocouple voltage correction

To do this, we note the 2nd rule of thermocouples:

Instrumentation and Control system

Thermocouple Rules (continued)

junctions are at Ta and Tc.

Instrumentation and Control system

Correction for thermocouples with reference temperature not at 0C

Actual reference temperature

Look up Vab from the Table

Add it to the measured voltage Vbc to give Vac

3) Use Vac to obtain the unknown temperature from the Table

Instrumentation and Control system

Output voltage measured with reference at 20C

Voltage to be added to bring reference to

Actual reference temperature 20 C

Instrumentation and Control system

= Vab + Vbc = 1.19 + 2.65 = 3.84 mV.

This corresponds to an oil temperature of 62.5C

3.05 3.11 3.17

Instrumentation and Control system

Measured output voltage Vbc

Voltage to be subtracted from

Oil temp ( to be found)

Instrumentation and Control system

Cold junction compensation

Instrumentation and Control system

Instrumentation and Control system

nickel chromium nickel aluminium

nickel chromium copper nickel

70% platinum 94% platinum

30% rhodium 6% rhodium

Instrumentation and Control system

One solution is to use very long lengths of thermocouple wire.

This is very expensive!!

Instrumentation and Control system

Instrumentation and Control system

Measurement of thermocouple voltage

Voltage gain = (R1+R2)/R1

Instrumentation and Control system

Gefran thermocouples cover all the most common types of

Instrumentation and Control system

Gefran also produces thermocouples in the three tolerance

Instrumentation and Control system

- metallic resistance, e.g. platinum,

Instrumentation and Control system

Coefficient of temperature depends on the type of

and encapsulated in glass for normal applications with

Instrumentation and Control system

Instrumentation and Control system