Chapter 1- Preliminaries

1.1 History of Algebra

The word algebra-al jebr (in Arabic)
was first used by Mohammed Al-Khwarizmi -muslim Math.
ninth century, when taught mathematics in Baghdad.
means reunion,decribes his method for collecting the terms
of an equations in order to solve it.
Omar Khayyam, another Mathematician, defined it as
the science of solving equations.

Elementary Algebra (Classical age of Algebra)

its central theme is clearly identified as the solving of eqs.
- method of solving linear, qudratic, cubic, quartic equations.
- 1824, Niels Abel there does not exits any formula for
1
equations degree 5 or greater.

Modern Age

new varieties of algebra arose

connection with the application in math to practical problems.
- Matrix Algebra
- Bolean Algebra
- Algebra of vectors and tensors
- ~200 different kinds of algebra.
the awareness grew
- algebra can no longer be conceived merely as the
science of solving equations.
- It had to be viewed as much more broadly as a
branch of mathematics.
revealing general principles which apply equally to
all known and all possible algebras:
* What is it that all algebras have in common?
* What trait do they share which lets us refer to all of
them as algebras? Algebraic Structure
Abstract Algebra (Modern Algebra) -more adv. course
2
The study algebraic structures.

1.2 Logic and Proof

Important Terms
Statement or Proposition
- Declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.
Definition
- A precise meaning to a mathematical term.
Axioms/Postulates
-A generally accepted statement or premise as to be
accepted as true without controversy.

 Theorem
- is a statement that has been proven on the basis of
previously established statements such as other
theorems, axioms, or definition.
- A major landmark in the mathematical theory.
- Once a theorem is proved to be true, it can be used.
Lemma
- a proven statement used as a stepping-stone toward the
proof of another statement.
Corollary
- A result that follows immediately from a theorem.
Example
- Is not a general result but is a particular case.
Proof
- Mathematical argument intended to convince us that
a result is correct.
4

Conjunction, Disjunction and Negation

Definition:
Let P and Q be statements.
i) The statement P AND Q, P Q,
is called the conjunction of P and Q.
ii) The statement P OR Q, P Q,
is called the disjunction of P and Q.
iii) The negation of P is denoted by NOT P or ~ P
Conditional and Biconditional Statement
Conditional statement: If P then Q, P Q.
Biconditional statement: P if and only if Q, P Q.
5

Quantifiers
Consider a statement P(x) :

x5

- Statement P(x) is depending on the variable x.

- Adding quantifiers can convert statement P(x) into a
statement that is either true or false.
Universal quantifier

()

P(x) is true for all values of x, denoted by

x, P ( x)

or
For all x, P(x).
For every x, P(x).
For each x, P(x).
P(x), for all x.

 Existential quantifier ()
There exist an x for which P(x) is true
or
For some x, P(x).
P(x), for some x.

: x, P ( x)

Example
1.

x R, x 1 ( x 1)( x x 1)

2.

x R, x x 6 0

3.

x R, x x 6 0

Proofs
- Many mathematical theorems can be expressed
symbolically in the form of

PQ
Assumption
Or
hypothesis

Conclusion

may consists of one or more

statements.

- The theorem says that if the assumption is true than the

conclusion is true.
- How do you go about thinking up ways to prove a
theorem?
Understand the definitions
Try examples
Try standard proof methods

Methods of Proof ( P Q)
1. Direct Method
find a series of statements P1,P2,,Pn
verify that each of the implications below is true
P P1 , P1 P2 , P2 P3 .....Pn 1 Pn and Pn Q
Example
An integer n is defined to be even if n = 2m for some integer m.
Show that the sum of two even integers is even.
Proof

2. Contrapositive Method
may prove Q P
Example
Proposition:
If x is a real number such that
Proof

x 7 x 9, then x 1.1
3

10

3. Proof by Contradiction
assume that P is true and not Q is true (Q is false)
will end up with a false statement S
Conclude that not Q must be false, i.e., Q is true
Example
Proposition:
If x is an integer and x2 is even then x is an even integer.
Proof

11

4. Proof by Induction
assume that for each positive integer n,
a statement P(n) is given. If
1. P(1) is a true statement; and
2. Whenever P(k) is a true statement, then P(k+1) is also true,
then P(n) is a true statement for every n in positive integer.
Example
Prove:

1
1
1
1
n

...

1 3 3 5 5 7
(2n 1)(2n 1) 2n 1
This is a
statement
P(n)
12

5. Proof by Counterexamples
Sometimes a conjectured result in mathematics is not true.
Would not be able to prove it.
Could try to disprove it.
The conjecture in the form of x, P ( x )
Take the negation: NOT (x, P ( x ))
Equivalent to:

x, NOT P ( x)

Hence to disprove the statement

x, P ( x)

need only to find one value, say c, such that P(c) is false.
The value c is called a counterexample to the conjecture.

13

Example
Let x be a real number. Disprove the statement
If x2 >9 then x >3.
Solution

14