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Diane Dahl, M.ED.

Supervisor of Special Services,


Reading Specialist

Ultimate goal of reading


instruction

The ultimate goal of reading instruction is for


children to become sufficiently fluent to
understand what they read.
To read grade-level material with
comprehension
To motivate students to want to read
To prepare students to be successful in
college and career

Scary statistics
Our research shows that, under current
conditions, the level of academic
achievement that students attain by
eighth grade has a larger impact on their
college and career readiness by the time
they graduate from high school than
anything that happens academically in
high school.

From: The Forgotten Middle (ACT, 2008)

Adults with lower levels of literacy and education


are more likely than adults with higher levels of
literacy and education to be unemployed or to
earn an income that falls below the poverty
level (Kutner et al., 2007).
Furthermore, adults without a high school
diploma or postsecondary education are more
likely to be incarcerated than adults with higher
levels of education (Harlow, 2003).
From: Reading on Grade Level in Third Grade: How Is It Related to High
School
Performance and College Enrollment? (2010)

Average annual 2008 earnings of workers 18 and


older
without a high school diploma- $21,023

with a high school diploma- $31,283

with a bachelors degree- $58,613

with an advanced degree- $83,144

From: Back to School (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 2010)

Reading is a complex
skill/process
Requires many sub-skills
Requires coordination of many

simultaneous processes
Failure of any one of these skills
or processes results in some type
or degree of reading difficulty

The Many Strands that are Woven into Skilled Reading


(Scarborough, 2001)

LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE
LANGUAGE STRUCTURES

inc
r
str eas
ate ing
gic ly

VERBAL REASONING

Skilled Readingfluent coordination


SKILLED
READING:
of word
reading
and
fluent execution and
comprehension
coordination of word
recognition and text
processes
comprehension.

LITERACY KNOWLEDGE

WORD RECOGNITION
PHON. AWARENESS
DECODING (and SPELLING)
SIGHT RECOGNITION

g ly
n
i
as atic
e
r
inc utom
a

Reading is a multifaceted skill, gradually acquired over years of instruction and practice.

Process of skill
acquisition
Novice level
Conscious processing
Time-intensive
Expert level
Mostly unconscious processing- automaticity
Much faster

How memory works


You sense something (see, hear, smell, etc.)
That piece of information stays in immediate

memory for 15-30 seconds.


If rehearsed immediately, info moves to short
term memory (15-30 minutes)
If the info is elaborated upon or processed, it
can move to long-term memory.
Info should be reviewed 10/24/7 for true
retention

Motivation and student selfefficacy

Factors that affect motivation


Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

Self-efficacy
what a person believes they are capable of

doing

Attribution theory

(Weiner, 1980,

1992)

An individuals success at a task can be viewed

as
Internal or external
Stable or unstable

(factors in us vs. in the environment)


(directly related to our behavior)

Controllable or uncontrollable

(changeable or not)

and can be attributed to one of four factors


Ability
(internal, stable, no personal control)
Task difficulty
(external, stable, no personal control)
Effort
(internal, unstable, learner-controlled)
Luck
(external, unstable, no personal control)

Attribution theory (cont.)


How people attribute their success or failure

will determine future behavior in regard to this


type of task

People will attribute success or failure to

whatever factor enables them to retain a


positive self-image.

It is best for students to believe that their

behavior and effort (not external factors) leads


to success or failure.

How is reading typically


acquired?

NOT a natural process- requires instruction


FIVE PILLARS OF READING INSTRUCTION

Phonics
Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension
Phonemic awareness

Phonological/Phonemic
awareness

Phonological awarenessOverall understanding that oral speech can be


broken down into smaller units- sentences,
words, syllables, individual sounds
(phonemes)
Phonemic awarenessThe understanding that words are composed
of individual sounds (phonemes) which can be
manipulated to create new words.

Phonics
The relationship between the spoken sounds

(phonemes) and the written letters


(graphemes) that represent those sounds.
Used in reading (decoding) and spelling
(encoding).
A childs phonics knowledge can be assessed
by analyzing his errors in reading and spellingrandom errors are rare.

Fluency
Speed, accuracy, and prosody (phrasing)

while reading
Automatic word recognition and decoding
leaves cognitive resources for comprehension
Millers number of items (7+/- 2) in working
memory
Reduces the time required to read a text,
decreasing fatigue and frustration
Benchmark fluency rates by grade

Developed and reported


by: Hasbrouck, J., &
Tindal, G. (2006) ORF
Norms: A valuable
assessment tool for
reading teachers. The
Reading Teacher, 59(7),
636644. Hasbrouck, J.,
& Tindal, G. (2005) Oral
Reading Fluency Norms
http://www.brtprojects.org
/publications/technical
-reports.

Fall
(WCPM)

Winter
(WCPM)

Spring
(WCPM)

1
2
3
4

30-60
50-90
70-110

10-30
50-80
70-100
80-120

30-60
70-100
80-110
100-140

5
6
7
8

80-120
100-140
110-150
120-160

100-140
110-150
120-160
130-170

110-150
120-160
130-170
140-180

Grade

Source: Adapted from AIMSweb: Charting the Path to Literacy, 2003, Edformation, Inc. Available at
www.aimsweb.com/norms/reading_fluency.htm. Data are also adapted from Curriculum-Based Oral Reading
Fluency Norms for Students in Grades 2 Through 5, by J. E. Hasbrouck and G. Tindal, 1992, Teaching
Exceptional Children, 24, pp. 41-44.

Vocabulary
Most vocabulary is learned orally through

conversation and read-alouds


Can be learned through reading, but more
difficult (dependent on ability and text
density)
Must be taught and reinforced repeatedly
Be aware of idioms and culturally American
concepts when working with ELLs (drive-in,
cut-offs, gonna, wanna, etc.)

The Effects of Weaknesses in Oral Language on


Reading Growth
(Hirsch, 1996)
16

High Oral
Language in
Kindergarten

15
14

5.2 years difference

Reading Age
Level

13
12
11

Low Oral
Language in
Kindergarten

10
9
8
7
6
5

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Chronological Age

Comprehension
Strategies should be taught orally while students

are still learning to read fluently.


Listening comprehension does not replace
reading comprehension
Be aware of idioms and culturally American
practices/schema when working with ELLs
(birthday parties, Field Day, Mischief Night)
Be cautious about interpreting accurate readaloud as comprehension. Require students to
explain or summarize to demonstrate
comprehension

Skilled beginning reading


requires

Automatic sight-word recognition

Automatic or fluent decoding of non-sight

words
Many poor comprehenders really lack one of

the above skills- if oral comprehension is not a


problem, its probably not a comprehension
issue.

High-frequency words
(sight
words)
Comprise at least 60-70% of all text.
Automatic recognition is required for fluent reading.
Some decodable, others not
Require repeated exposures to master
Incidental exposures vs. intense, concentrated

exposures
Make sure each exposure is paired with the
CORRECT pronunciation- practice makes
permanent
Several lists- Dolch, Fry, others.

Teaching sight words


Student needs to accrue the magic number

of exposures, paired with correct pronunciation


to cement the word in long-term memory
In isolation until automaticity is reachedflashcard procedure
If student has letter-sound knowledge, this
should happen more quickly.
Daily multiple opportunities to read aloud
should reinforce current sight words
Other ways of teaching sight words quickly

Phonic skills acquisition


sequence

Single consonant sounds


Consonant blends ((bl, cr, st, etc.)
Consonant digraphs (ch, sh, th, wh)
Short-vowel sounds
Long- vowel patterns
R-controlled vowel sounds
Weird vowel sounds (vowel digraphs

and diphthongs) (ow, oy, oo, etc.)

Phonics assessment and


instruction

Assessment

Informal phonics inventory (Stahl)- others?


Frequency- end of each MP
Analyze errors to determine starting point

Instruction
Goal is MASTERY-

90% or better to move on


Accuracy then speed (fluency)
Accountability and documentation

So..

How do we
improve student
reading
scores????

1. Kids need to read a lot


2. Kids need books they can read
3. Kids need to learn to read fluently
4. Kids need to develop thoughtful
literacy.

1. Kids need to read a lot


John Guthrie suggests that

increased practice results in


increased proficiency. In order to
accelerate struggling readers,
they need more practice. The
problem is that struggling 4th
graders may need 3-5 hours a day
of successful reading practice.

Achievement Minutes of Words per


Reading
Year
Percentile
per Day
90th
50th
10th

40.4
12.9
1.6

2,357,000
601,000
51,000

Reader-text mismatch causes


frustration.
Text choice- 95% accuracy= just right (5
finger rule)
Student choice enhances motivation
Multiple sources of leveled books

DRA book levels


Based on word count, text complexity, sentence

length

Essential for teachers to understand


Students should be able to read multiple books

FLUENTLY at a level before he is assessed and


moved up.

Assessment levels correspond to text levels

DRA book levels


Based on word count, text complexity, sentence

length

Essential for teachers to understand


Students should be able to read multiple books

FLUENTLY at a level before he is assessed and


moved up.

Assessment levels correspond to text levels

Stages of book levels


Repeated, patterned, memorized books with

picture support (DRA A-2)


Books containing only sight words with picture
support (DRA 3-6)
Books containing mostly sight words, but requiring
decoding of short and long-vowel words (DRA 8-14)
Books with sight words, requiring decoding of
short, long, and r-controlled vowel words,
diminishing picture support (DRA 16-24)
Books with sight words, requiring decoding of all
simple vowel patterns, plus decoding of multisyllable words, little picture support. (DRA 28+)

DRA levels 1-16


DRA level

Word count

16

36

46

53

71

86

10

134

12

137

14

203

Dolch
words
(# and %)
12
(75%)
30
(83%)
34
(74%)
40
(75%)
47
(66%)
52
(60%)
82
(61%)
65
(48%)
130

Short/long
decodable
words
3
(19%)
3

8%)

(2%)

(13%)

12

(17%)

30

(35%)

15

(11%)

19

(14%)

(4%)

Total

15/16
94%
33/36
92%
35/46
76%
47/53
88%
59/71
83%
82/86
95%
97/134
72%
84/137
61%
139/203

Enhances comprehension and viceversa


Shortens task-completion time
Increases student motivation to
read

more likely to read material too


difficult for them.
asked to read aloud more.
interrupted more often and quickly.
more likely to wait for prompts.
more likely to be told to sound it out!

read books at their level.


are asked to read silently.
are expected to self-monitor and correct.
are only interrupted at the end of a waiting
period.
are asked to reread and cross-check, not to
sound out!

4. Kids need to develop


thoughtful literacy.

No more read, remember, and

recite (p.129)
Conversation and connections
Summarize, analyze, synthesize,
evaluate
Vocabulary instruction
Literate conversations

Conclusions

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