Cells

Biology
GCE Study Buddy

A Cell

What is a cell?
A cell is a unit of life
Why must life be organized in cells?
Life requires a structural compartment separate from
the external environment in which macromolecules
can perform unique functions in a relatively constant
internal environment

Cells onsists of living matter called protoplasm

A jelly-like substance in which chemical activities are
carried out
Consists of 70-90% water, the rest consists of mineral
salts and organic compounds (carbon compounds) such
as carbohydrates, fats and proteins
Its composition varies from animal to animal and from
plant to plant
Consists of 2 forms
Sol (liquid) state
Gel state (semi-solid)

Cell Theory
all organisms are made up of one or
more cells
the smallest organisms are single
cells
cells are the functional units of
multicellular organisms
all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Cell Size
Cells range in size from a few micrometers to several
centimeters
Most cells are small because larger cells do not
function efficiently because small cells can more
easily transport materials into and out of themselves.
Advantageous to have a large surface-to-volume
ratio
as cell size increases, the volume grows more
rapidly than surface area
The larger the surface area of a cell, the faster a cell
can take in substances and remove waste products.
Whereas large internal volume relative to surface
area makes it more difficult to traffic materials into
and out of the cell

How to view cells?

Use microscopes can magnify cell sizes
Light Microscope (LM)
Pass visible light through a specimen
Magnify cellular structures with lenses
Magnifies up to 1000x

Electron Microscope (EM)

Uses a beam of electrons

Has a higher resolving power than the light microscope
Able to magnify more than 1000x
2 types:

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

Makes it possible to explore call structure.
Beams of electron can only pass through thin samples so
cells & tissues must be cut into ultra thin slices

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Electrons scan over the surfaces of the specimen.
No need thin slices
Can produce 3-D images.

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Characteristics of Cells
A surrounding membrane Plasma
membrane
Protoplasm cell contents in thick fluid
Organelles structures for cell function
Control centre with DNA - Nucleus
Protoplasm of a cell consists of:

-Cell surface membrane

-Cytoplasm where most cell activities occur and contains
enzymes and organelles. It can exist in sol or get state
-Nucleus which consists of nucleoplasm, nuclear envelope,
one or more nucleoli and chromatin. It controls cell activities
and is essential for cell division

Nucleus
Consists of a small spherical mass of denser protoplasm, the
nucleoplasm, surrounded by a nuclear envelope
Controls the normal cell activities
Responsible for cell reproduction
Needed for the continued life of the cell and repair of wornout parts
Within the nucleus are:
Nuclear envelope: double membrane surrounding nucleus
Separates the nuclear content from the surrounding cytoplasm
Perforated with thousands of nuclear pores to allow materials to
move into and out of the nucleus to and from the rest of the cell

Nucleoli: spherical structures

Main function is the production of ribosomes

Chromatin: a network of long thread-like structures (DNA

bound to proteins)
Contain hereditary materials
Control the activities of the cell
During cell division, chromatin threads condense and become
highly coiled structures called chromosomes

Nuclear envelope

Whats in the cytoplasm?

Cytoplasm: the place where most life

processes occur
Embedded in the cytoplasm are important
organelles:
Mitochondria: small spherical or rodshaped organelles
Involved in release of energy from food
substances during cell respiration

Whats in the cytoplasm?

Chloroplasts
In plant cells only
Sites where plants make food, combining carbon
dioxide and water, using energy from sunlight, to
make sugar
Vacuoles
In both plant and animal cells
A fluid-filled space enclosed by a membrane
Animal cells may have many small vacuoles but
are usually not permanent.
May contain water and food substances
A plant cell usually has a large central vacuole
which contains a liquid called cell sap
Cell sap contains dissolved substances such as sugars,
amino acids, and mineral salts
This large vacuole is enclosed by a membrane called
tonoplast

Whats in the cytoplasm?

Centrioles
Play a part in cell division
Absent in most plant cells

Ribosomes (2 types)
Free floating ribosomes in cytoplasm
Attached to the Endoplasmic Reticulum

Ribosomes build all the cells proteins

Cells active in protein synthesis are often packed with
ribosomes.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Composed of smooth and rough ER
Produces an enormous variety of molecules

Golgi Apparatus
Works in partnership with the ER
Refines, stores, and distributes the products of cells

Vacuoles: Lysosomes
Lysosome: a membrane-enclosed sac
In animal cells
Contains digestive enzymes
The enzymes break down macromolecules

They fuse with food

vacuoles to digest
the food

They break down

damaged organelles

Vacuoles: Central
Vacuole

In plant cells
Membrane bound storage sacs
Contents
Water
Food
Wastes
Make the cell firm by swelling that helps the
plant cell maintain support and rigidity

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough ER: The roughness is due to ribosomes
attached to the outside of the ER membrane
The functions of the rough ER include
Produce membrane proteins
Produce digestive enzymes
After the rough ER synthesizes a molecule it
packages the molecule into transport vesicles

The smooth ER lacks the surface ribosomes of

rough ER
Serves many functions:

Producing proteins
Fatty acids for new membrane synthesis
Produce steroids
Produce sex hormones
Detoxification of drugs and poisons

Mitochondria
Sites of cellular respiration, which involves the
production of energy from food molecules
The matrix contains enzymes which break down
carbohydrates and other nutrients for energy.
The breakdown of these molecules in the
presence of oxygen to produce energy is called
aerobic cellular respiration.
Energy releases may be temporarily stored in
small molecules called ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) batteries
ATP can be transported from one part of the cell
to another
When needed, ATP break down to release energy

Cell Surface Membrane

Also known as Plasma Membrane
Separates the inside of the cell from the outside
environment
Partially permeable to control substances entering
or leaving the cell
Selective permeability
Allowing some substances to cross more easily than
others
Block passage of some substances altogether

Consists of Phospholipid Bilayer

consists of a polar portion, called the head,
and 2 long fatty acids (non-polar), the tail.

Plant Cell Wall

All plants have cellulose cell walls.
Made up of cellulose fibers.
protect the cell from mechanical damage
and help the cell maintain its rigidity
under turgor pressure
prevents over-expansion of the cell when water
diffuses into the cell.

It is a barrier to many fungi, bacteria, and

other organisms that may cause plant
diseases.
It is fully permeable to all substances.
bacterial and fungi cells also have a cell wall,
but it is not made of cellulose.

Cell wall vs. Cell

membrane
Q. How permeable are the cell
wall and cell membrane in a
plant cell?
Cell Wall

Cell Membrane

Fully

Fully

Fully

Partially

Partially

Fully

Partially

Partially

Animal vs. Plant cells

Plant Cell
Presence of cellulose
cell wall
Presence of chloroplast
A large central vacuole
Cytoplasm reduced to a
thin lining
Present of starch grains
Absence of lysosomes

Animal Cell
Absence of cellulose cell
wall
Absence of chloroplast
Numerous small vacuoles
(lysosomes)
Cytoplasm fills the cell
Absence of starch grains

Animal vs. Plant cells

Q. Which cell structures are found in
plant cells and animal cells?
A.Cell membrane and chloroplasts
B.Cell membrane and nucleus
C.Cell wall and chloroplasts
D.Cell wall and nucleus

Factory

Cell Wall

Factory Wall

Plasma
membrane

Shipping & receiving Depts

Nucleus

the executive department (Manages activities,

initiates production, controls activities of factory)

Cytoplasm

factory floor where most of the products are

assembled, finished, and shipped.

Ribosome

assembly line assemble raw material to

manufacture item

Golgi apparatus

packaging, shipping, distributing

Endoplasmic
reticulum

conveyor belt move product within factory

Mitochondrion

generator produce energy for the factory

Vacuole

store area - store material for later use

Lysosome

collection centre breakdown and recycle used

parts

Cell membrane

door allows certain things to enter and leave

Biology - Matters

Cell

Mar 15, 2015

Factory Analogy of a Cell

24

Specialized cells, tissues,

organs,
and
systems
Types of cells:
Root hair cell:
Long and narrow shape to increase surface area to volume
ratio for efficient absorption of water and mineral salts from the
soil

Red blood cell (erythrocyte)

Contain a red pigment called haemoglobin, enabling the cell to
transport oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body
Circular biconcave shape to increase surface area to volume
ratio so oxygen can diffuse into and out of the cell at a faster rate
Lacks nucleus, provide more space for haemoglobin.

Xylem vessels:
Transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the stem
and leaves
No cross walls and protoplasm enables water to move easily
through the lumen
Lignin strengthens the walls and prevents collapse of the vessel
When bundled together, xylem vessels provide mechanical support
to the plant

Root hair cell, Red blood

cell, Xylem vessels
Root hair cell

Red blood cells: Flattened, circular

biconcave shape to increase the
surface area

Xylem vessel: a narrow,

cylindrical tube enclosing a
continuous space called the
lumen. The vessel is dead
because there is no

Form versus Function

A sphere has the least surface area-to-volume
ratio of any shape.
Cells in multicellular organisms consist of many
different types of cells that do different jobs.
What does it mean for a cell to be specialized?
Specific types of cells performs specific functions
As cells mature, they may change and differentiate
Differentiation: Process where a cell becomes specialised
for a specific function
Differentiation could target any number of the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Shape of cell
Component proteins
Cell structures or organelles
Cell growth
Cell division

The cell becomes adapted to perform a specific

function.

Recap
Differentiation is the process by which a cell
becomes specialized for a specific function.
Cell

Function

Adaptations

Red blood
cell

transport oxygen

Circular, biconcave shape

Able to change into a bell
shape
Contains haemoglobin
Absence of nucleus

Xylem
vessel

transport water
and mineral salts
from roots to stem
and leaves.

Absence of cross walls &

protoplasm
Walls strengthened by lignin

Root hair
cell

absorb water and

mineral salts from
soil

Presence of long and narrow

root hair to increase SA:V
ratio

Tissues, Organs, and

Systems

Cells of the same type may be grouped

together to carry out a special function
called simple tissue
Examples:
epithelial tissue: a sheet of cells covering both
the internal and external surfaces of body
plants have similar covering tissues called the
epidermis
muscle tissue: a collection of muscle cells which
bring about movement in our body by their
contraction and relaxation

Complex tissue: tissues containing several

types of cells
Examples: Nervous tissue, glandular tissue etc

Tissues

Organs
Different tissues may be
united to form an organ
eg stomach, liver
An organ is a group of
different tissues
working together and
enabling the organ to
perform a particular
functions

Organ System
Several organs working together for a special
purpose make up an organ system
Example: digestive system, respiratory
system
An organism may have a few organ systems.
Plants: stem and leaves as a system
Humans have about 40 organs that are
grouped into about 10 named systems.
The human nervous system includes:
Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Systems
An organ system is made
up of several organs
working together for a
special purpose.

Example: Digestive system

Function: Breakdown and

absorb nutrients that are
necessary for growth &
maintenance

Major organs: Mouth,

oesophagus, stomach, small &
large intestines

Biology - Matters

Respiratory System
Takes in oxygen from the surroundings. Removes carbon
dioxide and water vapour into the surroundings
Digestive System
Breaks down the food we eat into simpler substances that
can be absorbed by the blood.
Nervous System
Controls our actions, ensures all the parts of our body work
smoothly together and enables us to respond to changes.
Blood circulatory system
Carries food, oxygen and water to various parts of the
body. Carries wastes away to be removed.
Excretory System

Mar 15, 2015

Human Body Systems

Removes wastes from the body

Immune System
Defends against infections

34

Biology - Matters

Skeletal system
Supports our body, gives us shape, protects our
organs and enables movement.
Muscular system
Enables movement
Reproductive system
Female Produces eggs for reproduction
Male Produces sperms for reproduction
Integumentary system (skin)
Waterproof barrier
Regulate temperature
Lymphatic system
Filters bacteria
Destroy bacteria
Endocrine System
Secret hormones
Produce response in the body

Mar 15, 2015

Human Body Systems

35

Plants: Vascular Tissue

System

The xylem and phloem that functions

in transport and support; is continuous
throughout the plant.