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Manfred Krifka
Humboldt Universitt Berlin
Zentrum fr Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (ZAS)
Berlin
krifka@rz.hu-berlin.de
http://amor.rz.hu-berlin.de/~h2816i3x
Non-optimal
not
competing
Non-optimal
Optimal,
as the other
comparable pairs
are non-optimal.
Bidirectional Optimization
as a general explanationof M-Implicatures
Neo-Gricean pragmatics: Horn, Levinson,
in particular Levinson (2000), Presumptive Meanings, MIT Press.
Three basic principles:
Q-Principle (Quantity)
Speaker chooses the maximally informative expression of a set of alternative
expressions
that is still true (provided there is no reason not to do so)
Q-Implicatures:
John ate seven eggs. > John ate eight eggs.
I-Principle (Informativity)
Addressee enriches the literal information to a normal, stereotypical interpretation
(provided there is no reason not to do so)
I-Implicature:
Mary turned the switch, and it became dark. > temporal order, cause, purpose.
M-Principle (Modality / Manner / Markedness)
Non-normal, non-stereotypical interpretations are interpreted in non-normal ways,
i.e. unmarked expressions unmarked interpretations
marked expressions marked interpretations
M-Implicature:
Mary turned the switch, and it also became dark.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
20
thirty-seven
30
40
Rule: Choose least complex number expression within the range of interpretation!
If interpretation is precise, there is only one possible number expression.
Assume:
Conditional preferences
for short expressions and vague interpretations
Complex constraint rankings:
short > long under vague interpretation, i.e. short, approx. > long, approx.
approx. > precise for short expressions, i.e. short, approx. > short, precise
Optimal
Non-optimal
Non-optimal
Optimal,
no other
competitor
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Application of values
Possible durations
Application of values
0
15
30
45
60
Bidirectional OT
and preference for coarse-grained representations
Compare pairs of values (meanings) and levels of granularity of representation
Preferred as
more probably interpretation,
Optimal!
15min, [15-30-45-60min]
Non-optimal
15min, [5-10-15-20-25min-...]
Not generated!
20min, [15-30-45-60min]
20min, [10-15-20-25min-...]
Cannot be true
in the same situation,
not compared
with the other cases
-- Optimal!
after H. Hammarstrm (2004), Properties of lower numerals and their explanation: A reply
to Pawe Rutkowski (ms.)
12 15
50
QuickTime and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
4.230
vingtaine
737.000
onzaine
19
trentaine
866.000
quarantaine
272.000
douzaine
262.000
treizaine
16
cinquantaine
490.000
quatorzaine
47
soixantaine
159.000
540.000
septantaine
614
quinzaine
seizaine
quatre-vingtaine
dix-septaine
quatre-vingtdixaine
dix-huitaine
11
dix-neuvaine
centaine
85
0
548.000
Norwegian
tjue
trett i
frti
femt i
sekst i
sytt i
tti
nitti
Occurren ces
61300
43700
39200
81200
19400
10200
13100
13500
Danis h
tyve
tred ive
fyrre
halvtreds
tres
halvfjerds
firs
halvfems
Occurren ces
121000
25400
26800
15500
36400
581
3740
540
Complexity matters:
Common belief: Grammars do best what speakers do most (DuBois 1987)
But: Sometimes speakers do most what grammars do best!
QuickTime and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
unhappy
The literal meaning of the negations not happy and not unhappy:
happy
unhappy
not unhappy
not happy
Negated forms compete with shorter forms and are pragmatically restricted:
happy
unhappy
not unhappy
not happy
Problem:
-- Unclear how different interpretation of not happy and not unhappy comes about,
-- prediction: not unhappy gets blocked because it is more complex than not happy!
unhappy
not unhappy
not happy
unhappy
not unhappy
not happy
unhappy
>
>
Preference for simple expressions:
happy > unhappy > not happy > not unhappy
happy,
not unhappy,
happy,
not unhappy,
unhappy,
not happy,
unhappy,
not happy,
happy
happy
happy
unhappy
unhappy
unhappy
happy
unhappy
Further phenomena
in the interpretation of evaluative adjectives
Litotes (understatement):
This is not bad for This is good,
Im not unhappy about it for Im happy about it
Avoidance of positive values from the range of expressions.
Reason: showing off critical attitude that nothing can be really positive.
happy
unhappy
happy
unhappy
Conclusion
Round numbers / round interpretations:
-- Refined theory of interpretation preferences,
extending usual forms of bidirectional optimization.
-- Simplification of forms a secondary factor
after preference for coarse-grained scales with round numbers?
-- Development of scales to allow for round numbers / round
interpretations
Interpretation of antonyms:
-- Standard application of bidirectional optimization gets the facts right
if we assume basic exhaustive interpretation of antonyms
-- Explanation of tendency for stereotypical interpretations
in Williamsons epistemic theory of vagueness
-- Litotes as avoidance of extreme values.
krifka@rz.hu-berlin.de
http://amor.rz.hu-berlin.de/~h2816i3x