UNIT 1 Introduction: Matter

& Measurement

What chemists try to do is discover

the relationships between the
particle structure of matter and the
properties of matter we observe.
Chemistry is the science that seeks
to understand what matter does by
studying what atoms and molecules
do.

Everything is made of tiny pieces called

atoms and molecules.
Chemists believe that the properties of a
substance are determined by the kinds,
numbers, and relationships between these
pieces.

The Greeks
believed in four
basic elements:
earth, air, fire,
and water.

All substances
were
combinations of
these four basic
elements.
4

Most other sciences demand an

understanding
of basic chemical
principles, and
chemistry is often
referred to as
the central science.

Study of composition,
structure, properties,
and reactions of
matter.
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Chemistry is a science that studies the

composition of matter and its properties.

Chemistry is divided into several

branches:

Organic chemistry is the study of

substances containing carbon.

Inorganic chemistry is the study of all other

substances that dont contain carbon.

Biochemistry is the study of substances

derived from plants and animals.
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Knowledge of chemistry is important to

understanding the world around us.

Employment Opportunities

Chemical lab technicians

Biological lab technicians
Validation and documentation technicians
Quality control technicians
Analytical technicians
Biochemistry technicians
Chemical analysts
Formulation technicians
Laboratory technicians
Pilot plant technicians
Chemical laboratory assistants
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Potential Employers

Federal and provincial governments

Food product companies
Pharmaceutical companies
Chemical product manufactures
Industrial chemical manufactures
Environmental laboratories
Scientific companies
Municipal laboratories
Private laboratories
9

Matter is any substance that has mass

and occupies volume.

Matter exists in one of three physical

states:

solid

liquid

gas

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In a gas, the particles of matter are far

apart and uniformly distributed
throughout the container.

Gases have an indefinite shape and

assume the shape of their container.

Gases can be compressed and have an

indefinite volume.

Gases have the most energy of the

three states of matter.
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In a liquid, the particles of matter are

loosely packed and are free to move
past one another.

Liquids have an indefinite shape and

assume the shape of their container.

Liquids cannot be compressed and have

a definite volume.

Liquids have less energy than gases but

more energy than solids.
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In a solid, the particles of matter are

tightly packed together.

Solids have a definite, fixed shape.

Solids cannot be compressed and have

a definite volume.

Solids have the least energy of the three

states of matter.

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Most substances can exist as either a

solid, liquid, or gas.

Water exists as a solid below 0 C; as a

liquid between 0 C and 100 C; and as
a gas above 100 C.

A substance can change physical states

as the temperature changes.

15

When a solid changes to a liquid, the

phase change is called melting.

A substance melts as the temperature

increases.

When a liquid changes to a solid, the

phase change is called freezing.

A substance freezes as the temperature

decreases.
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When a liquid changes to a gas, the

phase change is called vaporization.

A substance vaporizes as the

temperature increases.

When a gas changes to a

liquid, the phase change is
called condensation.

A substance condenses as
the temperature decreases.
17

Example:

Liquid Chlorine is chlorine gas compressed

usually in a 1 ton or 150 lb container

Under pressure in the

container but using a
vacuum chlorinator, can
drawn and
injected into
the water flow for
disinfection

Biggest concern is safety

and temperature increases
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When a solid changes directly to a gas,

the phase change is called
sublimation.

A substance sublimes as the

temperature increases.

When a gas changes directly to a

solid, the phase change is
called
deposition.

A substance undergoes
deposition
as the
temperature decreases.
19

Examples of Sublmination:

Iodine

Dry ice (CO2)

Naphthalene (moth balls)

Ice cubes
(frost free refrigerators)

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Examples of Deposition:

CO2 gas can be made directly into dry ice

(opposite)

water vapor in very cold air can turn

directly to snow or frost on a window

Iodine vapors (purple ) will

become needle crystals of
black iodine solid
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Matter can be divided into two classes:

mixtures

pure substances

Mixtures are composed of more than

one substance and can be physically
separated into its component
substances.

Pure substances are composed of only

one substance and cannot be physically
separated.
24

There are two types of mixtures:

homogeneous mixtures

heterogeneous mixtures

Homogeneous mixtures have uniform

properties throughout.

Salt water is a homogeneous mixture.

Heterogeneous mixtures do not have

uniform properties throughout.

Sand and water is a heterogeneous mixture.

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Mixtures

Homogeneous
Mixtures which are the same throughout with
identical properties everywhere in the mixture.
Not easily separated.
This type of mixture is called a solution. A good
example would be sugar dissolved in water or
some type of metal alloy like the CROmiumMOLYbdenum steel used in many bike frames.
Heterogeneous
Mixtures which have different properties when
sampled from different areas.
Examples of this would be sand mixed with
water or peanuts mixed with raisins.
26

There are two types of pure substances:

compounds

elements

Compounds can be chemically

separated into individual elements.

Water is a compound that can be separated

into hydrogen and oxygen.

An element cannot be broken down

further by chemical reactions.
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a single atom
(of an element)

a molecule
(of an element)

a molecule
(of a compound)
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There are over 100 elements that occur in

nature; 81 of those elements are stable.

Only 10 elements account for 95% of the

mass of the Earths crust:

32

Oxygen is the most common element in

both the Earths crust and in the human
body.

While silicon is the second most

abundant element in the crust, carbon is
the second most abundant in the body.

33

Each element has a unique name.

Names have several origins:

hydrogen is derived from Greek

carbon is derived from Latin

scandium is named for Scandinavia

nobelium is named for Alfred Nobel

yttrium is named for the town of Ytterby,

Sweden
34

Each element is abbreviated using a

chemical symbol.

The symbols are 1 or 2 letters long.

Most of the time, the symbol is derived

from the name of the element.

C is the symbol for carbon

Cd is the symbol for cadmium

When a symbol has two letters, the first is

capitalized and the second is lowercase.
35

For some elements, the chemical symbol is

derived from the original Latin name.

Gold Au

Sodium Na

Silver Ag

Antimony Sb

Copper Cu

Tin Sn

Mercury Hg

Iron Fe

Potassium K

Tungsten W
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Atomic
Name
Symbol
Number
---------------------------------------------------------1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium

H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca

37

Elements can be divided into three

classes:

metals

nonmetals

semimetals or metalloids

Semimetals have properties midway

between those of metals and
nonmetals.
38

Metals are typically solids with high

melting points and high densities and
have a bright, metallic luster.

Metals are good conductors of heat and

electricity.

Metals can be hammered into thin

sheets and are said to be malleable.

Metals can be drawn into fine wires and

are said to be ductile.
39

Nonmetals typically have low melting

points and low densities and have a dull
appearance.

Nonmetals are poor conductors of heat

and electricity.

Nonmetals are not malleable or ductile

and crush into a powder when
hammered.

11 nonmetals occur naturally in the

gaseous state.
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Each element is assigned a number to

identify it. It is called the atomic
number.

Hydrogen is 1; helium is 2; up to
uranium, which is 92.

The elements are arranged by atomic

number on the periodic table.

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Metals are on the left side of the periodic

table, nonmetals are on the right side, and
the semimetals are in between.

44

Shown are the physical states of the

elements at 25 C on the periodic table.

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The law of definite composition

states that Compounds always contain
the same elements in a constant
proportion by mass.

Water is always 11.19% hydrogen and

88.81% oxygen by mass, no matter
what its source.

Ethanol is always 13.13% hydrogen,

52.14% carbon, and 34.73% oxygen by
mass.
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A particle composed of
two or more nonmetal
atoms is a molecule.

A chemical formula
expresses the number
and
types of atoms in
a molecule.

The chemical formula of

sulfuric acid is H2SO4.
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The number of each type of atom in a

molecule is indicated with a subscript in a
chemical formula.

If there is only one atom of a certain type,

no 1 is used.

A molecule of the vitamin niacin has 6

carbon atoms, 6 hydrogen atoms, 2
nitrogen atoms, and 1 oxygen atom.
What is the chemical formula?

C6H6N2O
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Some chemical formulas use parentheses

to clarify atomic composition.

Ethylene glycol, a component of some

antifreezes, has a chemical formula of
C2H4(OH)2. There are 2 carbon atoms, 4
hydrogen atoms, and 2 OH units, giving a
total of 6 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen
atoms. How many total atoms are in
ethylene glycol?

Ethylene glycol has a total of 10 atoms.

49

A physical property is a characteristic

of a pure substance that we can observe
without changing its composition.

Physical properties include appearance,

melting and boiling points, density,
conductivity, and physical state.

A chemical property describes the

chemical reactions of a pure substance.
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A physical change is a change where

the chemical composition of the
substance is not changed.

These include changes in physical state

or shape of a pure substance.

A chemical change is a chemical

reaction.

The composition of the substances

http://www.elmhurst.ed
u/~chm/vchembook/105Ac
changes during a chemical change.
hemprop.html

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gas release (bubbles)

light or release of heat energy

formation of a precipitate

a permanent color change

52

Sodium metal (Na)

reacts with
chlorine gas (Cl2)
to produce
sodium chloride (NaCl).

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Antoine Lavoisier found that the mass of

substances before a chemical change
was always equal to the mass of
substances after a chemical change.

This is the law of conservation of

mass.

Matter is neither created nor destroyed

in physical or chemical processes.

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If 1.0 gram of hydrogen combines with

8.0 grams of oxygen, 9.0 grams of water
is produced.

Consequently, 3.0 grams of hydrogen

combine with 24.0 grams of oxygen to
produce 27.0 grams of water.

If 50.0 grams of water decompose to

produce 45.0 grams of oxygen, how many
grams of hydrogen are produced?
50.0 g water 45.0 g oxygen = 5.0 g
hydrogen
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Potential energy, PE, is stored energy;

it results from position or composition.

Kinetic energy, KE, is the energy matter

has as a result of motion.

Energy can be converted between the

two types.

A boulder at the top of the hill has

potential energy; if you push it down the
hill, the potential energy is converted to
kinetic energy.
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All substances have kinetic energy no

matter what physical state they are in.

Solids have the lowest kinetic energy, and

gases have the greatest kinetic energy.

As you increase the temperature of a

substance, its kinetic energy increases.

58

Just like matter, energy cannot be

created or destroyed, but it can be
converted from one form to another.

This is the law of conservation of

energy.

There are six forms of energy: heat,

light, electrical, mechanical, chemical,
and nuclear.

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In a chemical change, energy is

transformed from one form to another.
For example:

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Mass and energy are related by

Einsteins theory of relativity, E = mc2.

Mass and energy can be interchanged.

The law of conservation of

mass and energy states that
the total mass and energy
of
the universe is
constant.
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Although aluminum is
very abundant in the
Earths crust, it is difficult
to purify it from its ore.
The energy from 8 tons
of coal is required to
produce 1 ton of
aluminum metal from its
ore.
However, it only takes
the energy from 0.4 tons
of coal to produce 1 ton
of aluminum from
recycled scrap.

62

Be curious and use

your imagination.

Quantify and calculate

Explore and
investigate.
Even small differences
can be important!

Commitment

Work regularly and

carefully.
63

Learn the vocabulary of chemistry.

Memorize important information.

Names, formulas, and charges of polyatomic ions.

Solubility rules.

Learn and practice processes.

Definitions of terms.
How common vocabulary is applied to chemistry.

Systematic names and formulas.

Dimensional analysis.

Do the questions and exercises in the chapter to

test your understanding and help you learn the
patterns?

64

Quantitative
observation.
Comparison to an
agreed upon
standard.
Every
measurement has
a number and a
unit.
65

The unit tells you to what standard

you are comparing your object.
The number tells you:
1. What

multiple of the standard the

object measures.
2. The uncertainty in the measurement.

66

Units tell the standard quantity to which

we are comparing the measured property.

Scientists use a set of standard units for

comparing all our measurements.

Without an associated unit, a measurement is

without meaning.

So we can easily compare our results.

Each of the units is defined as precisely

as possible.

67

Scientists generally report results in

an agreed upon International System.
The SI System

Aka Systme International

Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature

Unit
meter
kilogram
second
kelvin

Symbol
m
kg
s
K
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Quantity
Measured

Name of
Unit

Abbreviation

Mass

gram

Length
Volume

meter
liter

m
L

Time

seconds

Temperature

Kelvin

K
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Measure of the two-dimensional distance an

object covers.
SI unit = meter

About 3 inches longer than a yard.

1 meter = one ten-millionth the distance from the

North Pole to the Equator = distance between marks
on standard metal rod in a Paris vault = distance
covered by a certain number of wavelengths of a
special color of light

Commonly use centimeters (cm).

1
1
1
1

cm ~ width of your pinky nail

m = 100 cm
cm = 0.01 m = 10 mm
inch = 2.54 cm (exactly)

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Measure of the amount of matter

present in an object.
SI unit = kilogram (kg)

About 2 lbs. 3 oz.

Commonly measure mass in

grams (g) or milligrams (mg).

1
g
1
1
1
1

kg = 2.2046 pounds, 1 lbs. = 453.59

kg = 1000 g = 103 g,
g = 1000 mg = 103 mg
g = 0.001 kg = 10-3 kg,
mg = 0.001 g = 10-3 g

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Measure of the duration of an

event.
SI units = second (s)
1 s is defined as the period of
time it takes for a specific
number of radiation events of
a specific transition from
cesium-133.
72

Measure of the average amount

of kinetic energy.

higher temperature = larger

average kinetic energy

Heat flows from the matter that

has high thermal energy into
matter that has low thermal
energy.

Until they reach the same

temperature.
Heat is exchanged through
molecular collisions between the
two materials.
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Prefix

Symbol

Decimal
Equivalent

Power of 10

mega-

1,000,000

Base x 106

kilo-

1,000

Base x 103

deci-

0.1

Base x 10-1

centi-

0.01

Base x 10-2

milli-

0.001

Base x 10-3

micro-

or mc

0.000 001

Base x 10-6

nano-

0.000 000 001 Base x 10-9

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Derived unit.

Measure of the amount of space

occupied.
SI unit = cubic meter (m3)
Commonly measure solid volume
in cubic centimeters (cm3).

Any length unit cubed.

1 m3 = 106 cm3
1 cm3 = 10-6 m3 = 0.000001 m3

Commonly measure liquid or gas

volume in milliliters (mL).

1
1
1
1

L is slightly larger than 1 quart.

L = 1 dm3 = 1000 mL = 103 mL
mL = 0.001 L = 10-3 L
mL = 1 cm3
75

Length
1 kilometer (km)
1 meter (m)
1 meter (m)
1 foot (ft)
1 inch (in.)

=
=
=
=
=

0.6214 mile (mi)

39.37 inches (in.)
1.094 yards (yd)
30.48 centimeters (cm)
2.54 centimeters (cm) exactly

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Mass
1 kilogram (km) = 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 pound (lb) = 453.59 grams (g)
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 (g)
Volume
1 liter (L)
1 liter (L)
1 liter (L)
1 Imp. gallon (gal)

=
=
=
=

1000 milliliters (mL)

1000 cubic centimeters (cm3)
1.057 quarts (qt)
4.546 liters (L)
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Always write every number with its

associated unit.
Always include units in your
calculations.

You can do the same kind of operations on

units as you can with numbers.

cm cm = cm2
cm + cm = cm
cm cm = 1

Using units as a guide to problem solving

is called dimensional analysis.
78

Many problems in chemistry involve using

relationships to convert one unit of
measurement to another.
Conversion factors are relationships
between two units.

May be exact or measured.

Both parts of the conversion factor have the
same number of significant figures.

Conversion factors generated from

equivalence statements.

2.54cm
1in

e.g., 1 inch = 2.54 cm can give

1in
or
2.54cm
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Arrange conversion factors so the starting unit

cancels.
Arrange conversion factor so the starting unit
is on the bottom of the conversion factor.
May string conversion factors.
So we do not need to know every relationship,
as long as we can find something else the
starting and desired units are related to :

desired unit
start unit
desired unit
start unit
related unit desired unit
start unit

desired unit
start unit
related unit
80

Ratio of mass:volume.
Its value depends on the kind of material,
not the amount.
Solids = g/cm3
Mass

Density

1 cm3 = 1 mL

Except ice is less dense than liquid water!

Volume
Liquids = g/mL
Gases = g/L
Volume of a solid can be determined by
water displacementArchimedes Principle.
Density : solids > liquids > gases
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For equal volumes, the more dense object

has a larger mass.
For equal masses, the more dense object
has a smaller volume.
Heating objects causes objects to expand.

This does not effect their mass!

How would heating an object effect its
density?

In a heterogeneous mixture, the more

dense object sinks.

Why do hot air balloons rise?

82

Solution Maps:

Mass
Density
Volume

m, V

Mass
Volume
Density

m, D

V, D

Mass Density Volume

83

Sometimes you can determine

an exact value for a quality of
an object.

Often by counting.

Sometimes by definition

Pennies in a pile.
1 ounce is exactly 1/16th of 1 pound.

Whenever you use an

instrument to compare a
quality of an object to a
standard, there is uncertainty
in the comparison.
84

Measurements are written to indicate

the uncertainty in the measurement.
The system of writing measurements
we use is called significant figures.
When writing measurements, all the
digits written are known with certainty
except the last one, which is an
estimate.
45.872
Certain

Estimated

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For instruments marked

with a scale, you get the
last digit by estimating
between the marks.

If possible.

Mentally divide the space

into 10 equal spaces,
then estimate how many
spaces over the indicator
is.
1.2 grams
the 1 is certain;
the 2 is an estimate.

86

The non-placeholding digits in

a reported measurement are
called significant figures.

Some zeros in a written number

are only there to help you locate
the decimal point.

Significant figures tell us the

range of values to expect for
repeated measurements.

The more significant figures

there are in a measurement, the
smaller the range of values.
Therefore, the measurement is
more precise.

12.3 cm
has 3 significant figures
and its range is
12.2 to 12.4 cm.

12.30 cm
has 4 significant figures
and its range is
12.29 to 12.31 cm.

87

All non-zero digits are significant.

Interior zeros are significant.

1.5 has 2 significant figures.

1.05 has 3 significant figures.

Trailing zeros after a decimal point are

significant.

1.050 has 4 significant figures.

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Leading zeros are NOT significant.

0.001050 has 4 significant figures.

1.050 x 10-3
Zeros at the end of a number without a
written decimal point are ambiguous
and should be avoided by using
scientific notation.

If 150 has 2 significant figures, then

1.5 x 102, but if 150 has 3 significant
figures, then 1.50 x 102.
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Exact numbers have an unlimited

number of significant figures.
A number whose value is known with
complete certainty is exact.

From counting individual objects.

From definitions.

1 cm is exactly equal to 0.01 m.

From integer values in equations.

In the equation for the radius of a circle, the 2 is

exact.
diameter of a circle
radius of a circle =
2

90

Matter exists in three physical states:

solid

liquid

gas

Substances can be converted between

the three states.

Substances can be mixtures or pure

substances.
91

Pure substances can be either

compound or elements.

The elements are arranged in the

periodic table.

Each element has a name and a 1- or 2letter symbol.

Elements are classified as either metals,

nonmetals, or semimetals.
92

A physical change is a change in

physical state or shape.

A chemical change is a change in the

chemical composition of a substance.

Both mass and energy are conserved in

chemical and physical changes.

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The law of definite composition states that

Compounds always contain the same
elements in a constant proportion by mass.

This is the law of conservation of mass that

Matter is neither created nor destroyed in
physical or chemical processes.

This is the law of conservation of energy

that There are six forms of energy: heat, light,
electrical, mechanical, chemical, and nuclear.

The law of conservation of mass and

energy states that the total mass and energy
of the universe is constant.
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Measurement and associated units

Length, Mass, Time, Volume, Temperature

Conversion of Units and Dimensional Analysis

Density

Reporting Measurements - significant figures

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