Steve McLaughlin

President
Cardinal Surveys Company
Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

You do not want to frac your injectors

Old technology, but must be done right
Scant literature, but agrees on
fundamentals
Most costly waterflood mistake:
Unintentional Fracturing and direct
channels
Most overlooked, underutilized
technology
Rapid, premature breakthrough still
Cardinal Surveys Company 2009
plagues new floods today

Goal:
Reliable estimate of FPP (Formation Parting
Pressure)

Injection above FPP:

Premature breakthrough of injected fluids
Poor sweep efficiency
Reduced recovery
Loss of costly injection fluids.

Injection far below FPP:

Injection volumes much lower than the
allowable maximum
Reduced rate of oil recover.
Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

A reliable estimate of the formation

parting or fracture extension pressure
is important for efficient operation of
water floods and tertiary recovery
projects.
- Pramod Singh, SPE, and Ram G. Agarwal,
SPE, Amoco Production Co. SPE 18141,
1990.

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Rapid water breakthrough in production wells as a

direct result of exceeding a certain critical injection
pressure in nearby injection wells was observed as
early as 1945.(1) This critical injection pressure is
called the formation or fracture parting pressure
(FPP). The FPP is equivalent to the fracture
extension/propagation pressure in the hydraulic
fracturing literature.(2) Several studies (3-5)
recently demonstrated that a fracture will
propagate if injection is above the FPP and the
injection/withdrawal ratio is greater than one. In
addition to this uncontrolled fracture extension,
injection above the FPP may also cause fracturing
out of pay. These factors may lead to premature
breakthrough of injected fluids, poor sweep
efficiency, reduced recovery, and
lossSurveys
of costly
Cardinal
Company 2009
injection fluids.

On the other hand, injection far below the FPP may

result in injection volumes much lower than the
allowable maximum and a reduced rate of oil
recover. A reliable estimate of the FPP is therefore
critical in conducting secondary and tertiary
recovery projects.(6)
- Pramod Singh, SPE, and Ram G. Agarwal, SPE, Amoco
Production Co. SPE 18141, 1990.

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What is a Step Rate Test (SRT)?

A series of constant-rate injections
(Steps) increasing from low to high,
designed to determine the Formation
Parting Pressure (FPP).
Formation Parting Pressure is the
pressure which will initiate formation
fracture.
Fracture is undesirable when it leads to
by-passing productive pay and
channeling directly to adjacent
producers.
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FPP vs. closure pressure:

Closure pressure is less than the
Formation Parting Pressure.
Closure pressure can be determined by
in-situ stress testing methods.
Rules of Thumb usually limit injection
pressure to about 80% of FPP which
should also be below closure pressure.

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Eatons Method, 1969

( Pob Pr)e
FG
Pr
(1 e)
FG = Fracture Gradient
Pob = Overburden Gradient
Pr = Reservoir Pressure Gradient
E = Poissons Ratio

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Eatons Method West Texas Example

Pob = 1 PSI/ft (overburden gradient)
Pr = 0.433 PSI/ft (fresh water reservoir
gradient)
E = 0.25 (Poissons ratio)
FG = 0.622 PSI/ft
4,500 well = 2,799 PSI Cardinal
FPP Surveys Company 2009

Note: Eatons Method from example

using 80% rule-of-thumb equals 0.5
psi/ft gradient:
0.622 X 0.80 = 0.5 psi/ft
This is the Texas Railroad Commission
default permitted value.

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Measuring pressure Down Hole or

Surface?
Theoretically, pressure can be measured
at the surface, and corrected for
hydrostatic and frictional factors.
Practically, only down-hole (near
formation face) placed measurements
yield good SRT data.
Real-time monitoring required to insure
quality of the SRT, and to insure FPP has
been reached.
Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Real Time Injection Rate Steps

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Real Time Bottom Hole Pressures

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Injection Rates vs. BHP

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Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

New Mexico
OCD (Oil Conservation Division)
UNDERGROUND INJECTION
CONTROL
PROGRAM MANUAL
February 26, 2004
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New Mexico OCD rules:

Injection Pressure:
The initial permitted injection pressure is
limited to 0.2 psi/ft.
Wells may be permitted at a higher initial
injection pressure at the time of
application if adequate step-rate test
information is provided to the Division

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

New Mexico OCD rules:

Pressure Increases (over 0.2 PSI/ft):
The Division may authorize an increase in
injection pressure upon a proper showing
by the operator that such higher pressure
will not fracture the formation and will
not result in migration of injected fluids
from the authorized injection zone. Such
proper showing shall consist at least of a
valid step-rate test run in a manner
acceptable to the Division
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Texas RRC Statewide Rule 46

To ammend Injection Pressure above
0.5 PSI/ft, a Step Rate Test is required.

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Step Rate Test Guidelines

Texas RRC
Must demonstrate that formation
fracturing will not occur at the
proposed injection pressure.
SRT used to demonstrate.
Measure both surface and BHP.
The test well should be shut in long
enough so that the bottom-hole
pressure is near the shut-in formation
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Surveys Company 2009
pressure (No less than 48
hours.).

Step Rate Test Guidelines

Texas RRC
The well may need to be backflowed if
the shut-in pressure is above the
expected fracture pressure of 0.5
psi/ft. of depth.
Suggested rates for the test are 5, 10,
20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% of the
proposed maximum daily injection
volume and corresponding pressures.
The first rate should be the
Cardinal formation
Surveys Company 2009

Step Rate Test Guidelines

Texas RRC
At least two rates must be below the
expected fracture pressure of 0.5
psi/ft. of depth.
Each rate must be allowed to stabilize
before proceeding to the next higher
rate. (60 min for formation
permeability < 10 millidarcies, and 30
min for perm > 10 millidarcies.)
Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Step Rate Test Guidelines

Texas RRC
EACH STEP SHOULD LAST EXACTLY AS
LONG AS THE PRECEDING STEP.
Once the fracture pressure is reached,
continuing the test by stepping
downward will refine the fracture
pressure and provide quality control
forhttp://www.rrc.state.tx.us/forms/publications/HTML/fsrt.php
the test.
Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

http://www.epa.gov/R5water/uic/r5guid/r5_07.htm

United States Evironmental Projection

Agency (EPA)
Underground Injection Control regulations
promulgated in response to requirements of
the Safe Drinking Water Act include 40 CFR
146.13(a) for non-hazardous waste wells
and 146.67(a) for hazardous waste wells,
which state that:
Except during stimulation, the owner or
operator shall assure that injection pressure
at the wellhead does not exceed a
maximum which shall be calculated so as to
assure that the pressure in Cardinal
the injection
Surveys Company 2009
zone during injection does not initiate new

United States Evironmental Projection

Agency (EPA)

Recommends Fracture Closure

Pressure as maximum injection
pressure.
Prefers in-situ stress testing to SRT.
(In-situ stress testing is where fluid is
injected above the break-down
pressure [fracture pressure], and then
pressures are monitored after fluid
injection is stopped to determine
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Surveys Company 2009
closure pressure and pore
pressure.

http://www.epa.gov/region8/water/uic/INFO-StepRateTest.pdf

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

1) The well should be shut in long enough prior
to testing such that the bottom hole pressures
approximate shut-in formation pressures. If the
shut-in well flows to the surface, the wellhead
injection string should be equipped with a
gauge and the static surface pressure read and
recorded.
2) A series of successively higher injection rates
are determined using guidelines below, and the
elapsed time and pressure values are read and
recorded for each rate and time step. Each
rate step should last exactly as long as the
preceding rate. If stabilizedCardinal
pressure
values2009
Surveys Company
are not obtained within the rate steps suggested

http://www.epa.gov/region8/water/uic/INFO-StepRateTest.pdf

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

Formation Permeability (md) Total time per ratestep (min)
5 md 60 min
10 md 30 min
3) Suggested injection rates (percent of
maximum anticipated injection rate):
5% , 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%
4) Injection rates should be controlled with a
constant flow regulator that has been tested
prior to use. A throttling device is not
considered sufficient.
5) Flow rates should be measured
with Company
a
Cardinal Surveys
2009

http://www.epa.gov/region8/water/uic/INFO-StepRateTest.pdf

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

6) Record injection rates using a chart recorder
or a strip chart.
7) Measure pressures with a down hole
pressure bomb. If a surface gauge is used, the
test pressures must be corrected for the
estimated friction loss at each particular flow
rate.
8) Measure and record injection pressures with a
gauge or recorder (for immediate test results).
Record each time step and corresponding
pressure.
Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

http://www.epa.gov/region8/water/uic/INFO-StepRateTest.pdf

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

9) A plot of injection rates and the
corresponding stabilized pressure values should
be graphically represented as a constant slope
straight line to a point at which the formation
fracture, or breakdown, pressure is exceeded.
The slope of this subsequent straight line should
be less than that of the before-fracture straight
line (see example).

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

http://www.epa.gov/region8/water/uic/INFO-StepRateTest.pdf

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

10) If the formation fracture pressure has
definitively been exceeded, as evidenced by at
least two injection rate-pressure combinations
greater than the breakdown pressure, the
injection pump can be stopped, and the line
valve closed and pressure allowed to bleed-off
into the injection zone. There will occur a
significant instantaneous pressure drop
(Instantaneous Shut-in Pressure or ISIP), after
which the pressure values will level out. This
ISIP value must be read and recorded. The
ISIP obtained in this manner Cardinal
may be
considered
Surveys Company 2009
to be the minimum pressure required to hold

http://www.epa.gov/region8/water/uic/INFO-StepRateTest.pdf

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

11) Once the ISIP is obtained, the SRT is
concluded.
12) In the event that the breakdown pressure
was not obtained at the maximum test injection
pressure utilized, the test results may indicate
that the formation is accepting fluids without
fracturing.

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

EPA SRT Example

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Other method:
2 Step Method
SPE 18,141 Singh and Agarwal, 1989.
U.S. Patent No. 4,793,413 Singh,
Agarwal and Miller, 1988.
Uses continuous recording of rate and
pressure data.
Step one below FPP, Step two above FPP.
Delta time vs Delta pressure plots determine
FPP.
Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Examples Follow

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009