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ABR:
6-1
6-2
(FBA):
6-3
share is N/V
- the weight w(i)=N(i)/[N/V], where N(i) is
occupancy of connection I
- policy to drop: if (N>R) and w(i)>z then
drop, where R is the congestion threshold
and z~1
6-4
6-5
6-6
Chapter 6
Wireless and Mobile
Networks
Computer Networking:
A Top Down Approach
4th edition.
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley, July
2007.
6-7
6-8
Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction
Wireless
6.2 Wireless links,
characteristics
6.3 IEEE 802.11
wireless LANs (wi-fi)
6.4 Cellular Internet
Access
architecture
standards (e.g., GSM)
Mobility
6.5 Principles:
addressing and routing
to mobile users
6.6 Mobile IP
6.7 Handling mobility in
cellular networks
6.8 Mobility and higherlayer protocols
6.9 Summary
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-9
network
infrastructure
wireless hosts
laptop, PDA, IP phone
run applications
may be stationary
(non-mobile) or mobile
6-10
network
infrastructure
base station
typically connected to
wired network
relay - responsible
for sending packets
between wired
network and wireless
host(s) in its area
e.g., cell towers,
802.11 access
points
6-11
network
infrastructure
wireless link
typically used to
connect mobile(s) to
base station
also used as backbone
link
multiple access
protocol coordinates
link access
various data rates,
transmission distance
6-12
200
54
5-11
802.11n
802.11a,g
802.11b
4
1
802.11a,g point-to-point
data
802.16 (WiMAX)
UMTS/WCDMA-HSPDA, CDMA2000-1xEVDO
3G cellular
enhanced
802.15
.384
3G
UMTS/WCDMA, CDMA2000
.056
2G
Indoor
Outdoor
10-30m
50-200m
Mid-range
outdoor
Long-range
outdoor
200m 4 Km
5Km 20 Km
6-13
network
infrastructure
infrastructure mode
base station connects
mobiles into wired
network
handoff: mobile
changes base station
providing connection
into wired network
6-14
6-15
no
infrastructure
host connects to
base station (WiFi,
WiMAX, cellular)
which connects to
larger Internet
no base station, no
connection to larger
Internet (Bluetooth,
ad hoc nets)
Mobile Adhoc Networks
multiple hops
host may have to
relay through several
wireless nodes to
connect to larger
Internet: mesh net
no base station, no
connection to larger
Internet. May have to
relay to reach other
a given wireless node
MANET, VANET
Vehicular Adhoc Networks
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-16
wired networking?
6-17
- 1- Channel characteristics
- for satellite we get extended propagation delays
- high bit error rate BER (higher than optical fiber and
coax.)
- asymmetry in bandwidth and delay
- unidirectional links
- effects of wave propagation, attenuation, etc.
- 2- Mobility: continuous and introduces topology
dynamics
- 3- Power constraints in lots of the wireless
devices
6-18
6-19
10-2
BER
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10
20
30
40
SNR(dB)
QAM256 (8 Mbps)
QAM16 (4 Mbps)
BPSK (1 Mbps)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
6-20
C
Cs signal
strength
As signal
strength
space
Signal attenuation:
interfering at B
6-21
Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction
Wireless
6.2 Wireless links,
characteristics
CDMA
architecture
standards (e.g., GSM)
Mobility
6.5 Principles:
addressing and routing
to mobile users
6.6 Mobile IP
6.7 Handling mobility in
cellular networks
6.8 Mobility and higherlayer protocols
6.9 Summary
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-22
6-23
Internet
AP
hub, switch
or router
BSS 1
AP
BSS 2
6-24
6-25
AP 1
BBS 2
1
2
AP 2
BBS 1
AP 1
BBS 2
1
2
2
3
AP 2
4
H1
H1
Passive Scanning:
Active Scanning:
6-26
A
B
C
Cs signal
strength
As signal
strength
space
6-27
802.11 receiver
- if frame received OK
return ACK after SIFS (ACK needed
due to hidden terminal problem)
sender
receiver
DIFS
data
SIFS
ACK
6-28
6-29
6-30
AP
RTS(B)
RTS(A)
reservation collision
RTS(A)
CTS(A)
CTS(A)
DATA (A)
time
ACK(A)
defer
ACK(A)
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-31
6-32
frame
address address address
duration
control
1
2
3
seq address
4
control
0 - 2312
payload
CRC
6-33
H1
Internet
AP
source address
802.3 frame
AP MAC addr H1 MAC addr R1 MAC addr
address 1
address 2
address 3
802.11 frame
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-34
duration of reserved
transmission time (RTS/CTS)
2
frame
address address address
duration
control
1
2
3
2
Protocol
version
Type
Subtype
To
AP
seq address
4
control
From More
AP
frag
1
Retry
0 - 2312
payload
CRC
Power More
mgt
data
WEP
Rsvd
frame type
(RTS, CTS, ACK, data)
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-35
subnet: IP address
can remain same
switch: which AP is
associated with H1?
router
hub or
switch
BBS 1
AP 1
AP 2
H1
BBS 2
6-36
QAM256 (8 Mbps)
QAM16 (4 Mbps)
BPSK (1 Mbps)
operating point
10-1
10-2
10-3
BER
Rate Adaptation
base station, mobile
dynamically change
transmission rate
(physical layer
modulation technique)
as mobile moves, SNR
varies
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10
20
30
SNR(dB)
40
6-37
6-38
(mouse, keyboard,
headphones)
ad hoc: no infrastructure
master/slaves:
Bluetooth specification
S
P
radius of
coverage
M
S
M Master device
S
Slave device
6-39
802.16: WiMAX
like 802.11 & cellular:
point-to-point
transmissions to/from
base station by hosts
with omnidirectional
antenna
base station-to-base
station backhaul with
point-to-point antenna
unlike 802.11:
range ~ 6 miles (city
rather than coffee
shop)
~14 Mbps
point-to-multipoint
6-40
pream.
DL
burst 1
DL
burst 2
downlink subframe
DL
burst n
Initial request
SS #1 SS #2
maint. conn.
SS #k
uplink subframe
base station tells nodes who will get to receive (DL map)
and who will get to send (UL map), and when
6-41
Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction
Wireless
6.2 Wireless links,
characteristics
CDMA
architecture
standards (e.g., GSM)
Mobility
6.5 Principles:
addressing and routing
to mobile users
6.6 Mobile IP
6.7 Handling mobility in
cellular networks
6.8 Mobility and higherlayer protocols
6.9 Summary
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-42
cell
covers geographical
region
base station (BS)
analogous to 802.11 AP
mobile users attach
to network through BS
air-interface:
physical and link layer
protocol between
mobile and BS
Mobile
Switching
Center
Public telephone
network, and
Internet
Mobile
Switching
Center
wired network
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-43
consists of:
- 1- Users (mobile station)
- 2- Base Station (BS): connects users to MSC
- 3- Mobile Switching Center (MSC):
-
6-44
6-45
6-46
Cellular Comm./Networking
Terminology
- Hand-off: the process of transferring the
6-47
6-48
6-49
6-50
6-51
Frequency Re-use
- A cell uses a set of frequencies
- A cluster holds several cells
- Frequency re-use factor: 1/#cells per
cluster
6-52
B
G
C
A
B
G
D
E
C
A
F
B
C
A
F
B
G
D
Cluster
Cell
D
E
C
A
D
E
Cellular frequency re-use concept: cells with the same letter use the same set of frequencies.
A cluster of cells (highlighted in bold) is replicated over the coverage area. The cluster size,
N, is equal to 7. Since each cell contains one-seventh of the overall channels, the cell
frequency re-use factor is 1/7.
6-53
Analysis
A cellular system with S duplex channels
Each cell has k channels. There are N cells
6-54
6-55
channels
For 4-cell reuse, channels per cell = 660/4=165
1Mhz of control
Total control 1MHz/50k=20 control channels
number of control channels per cell = 20/4 =5,
165-5=160 voice channels per cell
6-56
alleviate blocking.
6-57
6-58
Hand-off strategies
- Mobile moves into a different cell
- It monitors the signal strength from the
6-59
6-60
- Note:
- Does handoff occur only during movement?
6-61
(MAHO).
-
6-62
6-63
Interference in Cellular
Networks
Main types on interference:
Co-channel interference
Adjacent channel interference
External sources
Effects of fading
6-64
Co-channel Interference
- Exists between signals from co-channel
6-65
6-66
6-67
6-68
6-69
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314
freq
4
G 11
6
F 13
2
B 9
1
A 8
3
E 10
5
C 12
7
D 14
6-70
6-71
FDMA
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-72
on demand
Only 1 user utilizes the channel at a time. Idle
times are wasted. Capacity is not shared.
Communication is continuous
Does not need synchronization
Costly filters at the base station
Need guard bands to alleviate interference
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-73
TDMA
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-74
receives)
Several users share a single frequency channel
Transmission is non-continuous
Power consumption is lower than FDMA (e.g.,
the transmitter can be turned off when idle)
During idle time, a mobile performs MAHO
Synchronization is needed
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-75
6-76
- Modulation:
- Uses pseudo-noise (PN) sequence to convert the signal
into wideband
- The PN is random, but can be re-produced by receiver
- Demodulation:
- Correct correlation using a PN re-produces the signal
- Using wrong PN sequence produces noise, hence this
scheme is secure
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-77
6-78
CDMA
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-79
6-80
same frequency
- Soft hand-off can be provided since all the cells use
the same frequency. MSC monitors signals.
- In soft hand-off the channel (or frequency) remains
the same and the base station changes
6-81
6-82
Sss(t) ~ m(t)p(t)cos(2fct+)
B: is the bandwidth of m(t)cos(2fct+)
Wss: is the bandwidth of Sss(t)
Wss >> B
Phase modulation
Data m(t)
Sss(t)
Transmitted Signal
p(t)
PN Code
Generator
Oscillator
fc
Chip Clock
Block diagram of a DS-SS system with binary phase modulation
Transmitter
6-83
(A)
Symbol
Channel (B)
encoder
f(B,C)
(C)
Chip
Symbol duration for m(t): Ts
Chip duration for p(t): Tc
6-84
Bit stream
(A)
Ts
Encoded
stream
(B)
m(t)
Tc
Pseudo-noise
sequence
(C)
p(t)
6-85
Example:
f(B,C)=BC, where
1 1= 0
10=1
00=0
6-86
6-87
6-88
- FDMA/CDMA:
- The available bandwidth is split into
6-89
FDMA/CDMA
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-90
time slots
bands
6-91
america)
GSM (global system for mobile communications):
combined FDMA/TDMA
6-92
6-93
Other (future):
LTE (Long Term Evolution): new standard, may become universal replacing GSM
and CDMA. Competitor of WiMax. Uses OFDMA (Orthogonal frequency division
multiple access) and MIMO (multipl-input multiple-output) data transmission
using multiple smart antennas (~2010-2011 time frame).
6-94
Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction
Wireless
6.2 Wireless links,
characteristics
CDMA
architecture
standards (e.g., GSM)
Mobility
6.5 Principles:
addressing and routing
to mobile users
6.6 Mobile IP
6.7 Handling mobility in
cellular networks
6.8 Mobility and higherlayer protocols
6.9 Summary
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
6-95
What is mobility?
spectrum of mobility, from the
network perspective:
no mobility
high mobility
6-96
Mobility: Vocabulary
home network: permanent
home of mobile
(e.g., 128.119.40/24)
Permanent address:
address in home
network, can always be
used to reach mobile
e.g., 128.119.40.186
wide area
network
correspondent
6-97
Care-of-address: address
in visited network.
(e.g., 79,129.13.2)
wide area
network
correspondent: wants
to communicate with
mobile
6-98
I wonder where
Alice moved to?
books?
call her parents?
expect her to let you
know where he/she is?
6-99
Mobility: approaches
Let routing handle it: routers advertise permanent
address of mobile-nodes-in-residence via usual
routing table exchange.
routing tables indicate where each mobile located
no changes to end-systems
Let end-systems handle it:
indirect routing: communication from
correspondent to mobile goes through home agent,
then forwarded to remote
direct routing: correspondent gets foreign
address of mobile, sends directly to mobile
Mobility: approaches
Let routing handle it: routers advertise permanent
not
address of mobile-nodes-in-residence
via usual
scalable
routing table exchange.
to millions of
routing tables indicate where each mobile located
mobiles
no changes to end-systems
let end-systems handle it:
indirect routing: communication from
correspondent to mobile goes through home agent,
then forwarded to remote
direct routing: correspondent gets foreign
address of mobile, sends directly to mobile
Mobility: registration
visited network
home network
wide area
network
mobile contacts
foreign agent on
entering visited
network
End result:
Foreign agent knows about mobile
Home agent knows location of mobile
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks 6-102
home
network
visited
network
3
wide area
network
correspondent
addresses packets
using home address
of mobile
4
mobile replies
directly to
correspondent
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks 6-103
network
foreign agent
receives packets,
forwards to mobile
home
network
4
wide area
network
2
correspondent
requests, receives
foreign address of
mobile
visited
network
4
mobile replies
directly to
correspondent
wide area
network
anchor
foreign
agent
2
4
5
correspondent
correspondent
agent
3
new foreign
agent
new
foreign
network
Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction
Wireless
6.2 Wireless links,
characteristics
CDMA
architecture
standards (e.g., GSM)
Mobility
6.5 Principles:
addressing and routing
to mobile users
6.6 Mobile IP
6.7 Handling mobility in
cellular networks
6.8 Mobility and higherlayer protocols
6.9 Summary
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks 6-109
Mobile IP
RFC 2002, RFC 3344.
Goals:
Attempts to provide support for host
Mobile IP
has many features weve seen:
Mobile IP
Each mobile node has a home network,
Foreign Network
Correspondent Node
Register
Register (HA)
Mobile Node
Home Agent
Home Network
foreign agent
COA: 79.129.13.2
registration req.
COA: 79.129.13.2
HA: 128.119.40.7
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 9999
identification: 714
encapsulation format
.
Mobile agent
MA: 128.119.40.186
registration req.
COA: 79.129.13.2
HA: 128.119.40.7
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 9999
identification:714
.
registration reply
time
HA: 128.119.40.7
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 4999
Identification: 714
encapsulation format
.
registration reply
HA: 128.119.40.7
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 4999
Identification: 714
.
dest: 128.119.40.186
dest: 128.119.40.186
Permanent address:
128.119.40.186
dest: 128.119.40.186
Care-of address:
79.129.13.2
packet sent by
correspondent
6: Wireless and Mobile Networks 6-115
Packets sent by MN go
directly to CN
Mobile Node (MN)
Correspondent
Node (CN)
Packets to MN are
picked up by the HA
and tunneled to MN
Home Agent (HA)
Correspondent
Node (CN)
Drawbacks of Mobile IP
Other than (the main problem) of triangular
routing
Suggested solutions
To avoid triangular routing
use route optimization
use micro-mobility architectures
Cellular IP (CIP)
Hawaii
Multicast-based Mobility (M&M)
Correspondent
Node (CN)
(2) Initial packets
to MN are sent
through HA to MN
Micro-Mobility
Hierarchical approach to mobility:
During frequent, intra-domain, movement only
local efficient handoff is performed without
notifying the home agent (HA) or the
correspondent node (CN)
For inter-domain mobility use Mobile IP. Notify
HA or CN only during inter-domain movement
Wireless link
Mobile Node
correspondent
wired public
telephone
network
MSC
MSC
MSC
MSC
MSC
HLR
2
home MSC consults HLR,
gets roaming number of
mobile in visited network
correspondent
home
Mobile
Switching
Center
1
VLR
3
Mobile
Switching
Center
Public
switched
telephone
network
call routed
to home network
mobile
user
visited
network
VLR Mobile
Switching
Center
old
routing
old BSS
new
routing
new BSS
VLR Mobile
Switching
Center 2
1
8
old BSS
7
3
6
new BSS
home network
correspondent
Home
MSC
anchor MSC
MSC
MSC
MSC
home network
correspondent
Home
MSC
anchor MSC
MSC
MSC
MSC
Mobile IP element
Home system
Home
network
Gateway Mobile
Switching Center, or
home MSC. Home
Location Register
(HLR)
Home agent
Visited System
Visited Mobile
services Switching
Center.
Visitor Location
Record (VLR)
Mobile Station
Roaming Number
(MSRN), or roaming
number
Care-ofaddress
Chapter 6 Summary
Wireless
wireless links:
capacity, distance
channel impairments
CDMA
Mobility
principles: addressing,
routing to mobile users
case studies
mobile IP
mobility in GSM
impact on higher-layer
protocols
CDMA Encode/Decode
sender
data
bits
code
Zi,m= di.cm
d0 = 1
-1 -1 -1
1
-1
1 1 1
-1 -1 -1
slot 1
-1
slot 1
channel
output
1
-1
1 1 1 1 1 1
d1 = -1
1 1 1
-1 -1 -1
slot 0
1
-1
-1 -1 -1
slot 0
channel
output
Di = Zi,m.cm
m=1
received
input
code
receiver
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
-1 -1 -1
-1
1 1 1
1
-1
-1 -1 -1
-1
1 1 1
-1 -1 -1
slot 1
1
-1
-1 -1 -1
slot 0
d0 = 1
d1 = -1
slot 1
channel
output
slot 0
channel
output