Beverages

Coffea arabica

Coffee History
It is thought that the energizing effect of the coffee
bean plant was first recognized in Yemen in Arabia
and the north east of Ethiopia and the cultivation
of coffee first expanded in the Arab world. The
earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking
appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in
the Sufi monasteries of Yemen in southern Arabia.
From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy,
then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the
Americas.

Coffee Berries (Beans)

Coffee Production
An important export commodity, coffee was
the top agricultural export for twelve
countries in 2004, and it was the world's
seventh-largest legal agricultural export by
value in 2005 (based on value in dollars, not
in pounds produced).

Coffee Varieties
Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C.
arabica) is generally more highly regarded than robusta
coffee (from C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and
have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these
reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated
worldwide is C. arabica. However, C. canephora is less
susceptible to disease than C. arabica and can be
cultivated in lower altitudes and warmer climates where C.
arabica will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about
4050% more caffeine than arabica.

Regions of Coffee Cultivation

r = robusta production, a = arabica, m = mixture

Coffee Seedlings - Brazil

Shade Grown Coffee Costa Rica

Coffee Beans

Drying the Beans

Roasting the Beans

Various Roasts

Coffee Roasts
Depending on the color of the roasted beans as
perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled
as light, medium light, medium, medium dark,
dark, or very dark.
Darker roasts are generally smoother, because
they have less fiber content and a more sugary
flavor. Lighter roasts have more caffeine and a
stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids
otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times

Science and Coffee Consumption

Scientific studies have examined the relationship between coffee
consumption and an array of medical conditions. Findings have
been contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific health
benefits, and results are similarly conflicting regarding the
potentially harmful effects of coffee consumption. Variations in
findings, however, can be at least partially resolved by considering
the method of preparation. Coffee prepared using paper filters
removes oily components called diterpenes are present in coffee:
kahweol and cafestol, both of which have been associated with
increased risk of coronary heart disease via elevation of low
density lipoproteins (LDL) levels in blood. Metal filters, on the
other hand, do not remove the oily components of coffee.

Cacao Theobroma cacao

Tlalcacahoatl

Aztec uses of Cacao

Woman making
chocolate drink
from Codice Tudela
16th century

Florentine Codex god

visiting Cacao eater

Theobroma cacao

Cacao leaves and seeds Theobroma cacao

Aztecs recognized at least four

varieties of Cacao
Cacahoaquiahuit largest, bore the largest fruits,
most seeds.
Mecacahoatl medium height, fruits second
largest in size.
Xochicacahoatl smaller in height and with
smaller fruits with red seeds.
Tlalcacahoatl smallest of them all and with the
smallest fruits. It was thought to make the best
drink. The other varieties were prized for seeds
for currency

Chocolate
The seeds of the cacao tree have an intense bitter taste, and must be
fermented to develop the flavor.
After fermentation, the beans are dried, cleaned, and roasted, and
the shell is removed to produce cacao nibs. The nibs are then
ground to cocoa mass, pure chocolate in rough form. Because this
cocoa mass usually is liquefied then molded with or without other
ingredients, it is called chocolate liquor. The liquor also may be
processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter.
Unsweetened baking chocolate (bitter chocolate) contains primarily
cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the
chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate,
combining cocoa solids, cocoa butter or other fat, and sugar.

Hot Chocolate

Benefits of Chocolate
Cocoa solids contain alkaloids such as theobromine and
phenethylamine, which have physiological effects on the
body. It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain.
Some research has found that chocolate, eaten in
moderation, can lower blood pressure. Dark Chocolate has
recently been promoted for its health benefits, including a
substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the
formation of free radicals (although this is unproven). The
presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals,
especially dogs and cats.

Psychoactive plants as a
communal experience
Many psychoactive plants
have very subtle effects
and appear to facilitate
social interactions among
people - plants included in
this group include plants
that yield recreational
beverages such as beer,
wine, yerba mate, coffee,
chocolate, and tea

Piper methysticum source of Kava

Kava Chemical Activity

The active chemicals in kava are lactones
The two most important ones are kavain
and dihydrokavain
As Polynesians moved east, they tended to
select plants rich in kavain and poor in
dihydrokavain

Samoan women prepare Kava for the

Kava ceremony

Different varieties of Kava

There are 9 major groups of kava plant
clones - each differs in chemical activity
A Samoan clone called fellowship and
brotherhood makes one feel very friendly
Another called the white pigeon imparts a
sense of heightened perception, as though
one were flying over the rain forest like a
pigeon

Tamarind Tamarindus indica

Tamarind History
It is a tropical tree, native to tropical Africa, the tree grows
wild throughout the Sudan and was so long ago introduced
into and adopted in India that it has often been reported as
indigenous there also, and it was apparently from India that
it reached the Persians and the Arabs who called it "tamar
hindi" (Indian date, from the date-like appearance of the
dried pulp), giving rise to both its common and generic
names. Unfortunately, the specific name, "indica", also
perpetuates the illusion of Indian origin. The fruit was well
known to the ancient Egyptians and to the Greeks in the
4th Century B.C.

Tamarind Fruits

Tamarind Uses
The fruit pulp is edible and popular. It is used as a
spice in both Asian and Latin American cuisines,
and is also an important ingredient in Worcestershire
sauce, HP Sauce and the Jamaican-produced
Pickapeppa Sauce. The hard green pulp of a young
fruit is very tart and acidic and is most often used as
a component of savory dishes. The ripened fruit is
sweeter, yet still distinctively sour, and can be used
in desserts and sweetened drinks, or as a snack.

Tamarind based sauces

Tamarinido Drinks

Herbs and Spices

Herbs and Spices

A spice is a dried seed, fruit, leaf, root, bark, or
vegetative substance used in nutritionally
insignificant quantities as a food additive for the
purpose of flavor, color, or as a preservative that
kills harmful bacteria or prevents their growth.
In the kitchen, spices are distinguished from
herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used
for flavoring purposes.

History of Spice Use

The earliest evidence of the use of spice by humans was
around 50,000 B.C. The spice trade developed throughout
the Middle East in around 2000 BC with cinnamon and
pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for embalming and their
need for exotic herbs helped stimulate world trade. In fact,
the word spice comes from the same root as species,
meaning kinds of goods. By 1000 BC China and India had
a medical system based upon herbs. Early uses were
connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and
preservation.

More Spice History

Spices were among the most luxurious products available in
Europe in the Middle Ages, the most common being black
pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin,
nutmeg, ginger and cloves. They were all imported from
plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them extremely
expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the Republic of
Venice had the monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East.
The trade made the region phenomenally rich. It has been
estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the
other common spices were imported into Western Europe each
year during the Late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was
the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people.

Spice Trade Routes

Dutch East India Company Ship

Japanese Woodblock Print - 1782

Plants for Dyes and Decorations

Woad Isatis tinctoria

Woad Dyes
Woad produces a substance in its leaves
called isatan B which, when exposed to the
air, forms the blue compound indigo.
This compound can easily be removed from
the leaves by boiling them in water and an
alkaline solution, a process used by home
dyers today to make indigo today

Woad Dye and Woad Dyed Wool

Woad Body Decoration

Source of Henna Lawsonia inermis

Henna Dye
Henna, Lawsonia inermis, produces a red-orange
dye molecule lawsone. This molecule has an affinity
for bonding with protein, and thus has been used to
dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather, silk and wool.
Henna body art is made by applying henna paste to
the skin: the lawsone in the paste migrates into the
outermost layer of the skin and makes a red-brown
stain.
Products sold as "black henna" or "neutral henna"
are not made from henna, but may be derived from
indigo (in the plant Indigofera tinctoria) or Cassia
obovata

Henna Preparation
Dried ground, sifted henna leaves are easily
worked into a paste that can used to make intricate
body art.
Commercially available henna powder is made by
drying the henna leaves and milling them to
powder, then the powder is sifted.
This powder is mixed with lemon juice, strong tea,
or other mildly acidic liquids. Essential oils with
high levels of monoterpene alcohols such as tea
tree, eucalyptus, cajeput, or lavender will improve
skin staining characteristics.

Mehndi traditional Indian bridal

henna art

Modern body art with Henna

Traditional tattoo on
resident of Nuka
Hiva- late 1700s

Candlenut tree Aleurites moluccana

Traditional Samoan Tattooing

The pigments used in traditional Samoan
tattooing comes from the nuts of the
candlenut tree Aleurites moluccana
(Euphorbiaceae) - called lama in Samoan
The seeds are burned to produce soot which
is collected on banana leaves and stored in
coconut shells

Candlenut seeds ready to be burned

to produce soot

Samoan Tattooing Technique

Tattooing is done by grinding the soot with
a mortar and pestle
A serrated comb of pig bone is used to
penetrate the skin, and a mallet pounds the
comb and pigment into the skin
A towel of bark cloth is used to wipe away
the blood

Traditional Samoan tattoo process

as done today

Completed modern
version of traditional
Samoan tattoo