Porphyry Ore Deposits:

Their geology and genesis

Anthony Harris, CODES University of Tasmania

Chuquicamata,
Chuquicamata, Chile
Chile

Porphyry Deposits - Characteristics

Large tonnage and low grade bulk mineable deposits

Related to porphyritic intrusions

Stockwork and breccia-hosted ore

Large volumes of hydrothermal alteration

Supergene enrichment
Cadia Hill Cu-Au
porphyry, NSW

Porphyry Deposits - Characteristics

Fracture controlled sulfide mineralisation localized in

and around porphyritic intrusions

Porphyry Deposits - Characteristics

Bingham, USA

Porphyritic rocks
Striking relationship between Cu-bearing hydrothermal
veins and igneous rocks that display porphyritic texture

Decompression volatile exsolution +

rapid crystallization of residual melt
A variety of textures preserve aqueous phase separation (and
bubble formation) and volatile streaming in the melt
Bingham, USA

Deposit
Genesis

from Shinohara and Hedenquist, 1997

Classification by Metal Content

Au (*10,000)
Increasing
magnetite contents
in early-formed
veins and alteration
assemblages

Calc-alkalic

isl
an

Decreasing
depth of
emplacement

Alkalic

da
rc
s

ett
i ng
s

High-K calc-alkalic

Modified from Kesler (1973)

and Thompson (1994)

n
ato
Cr

Cu

Mo (*10)
Continental arc
settings

Increasing SiO2
content of magmas

Giant porphyry copper deposits

El Teniente, Chile (82 Mt of contained Cu)

Cu-Au deposits
70

Cu-Au-Mo deposits
60

Behemothia
n

50

Super-giant

30

Pebble West
El Salvador
Reko Diq
Aktogay-Aiderly
Cuajone
Pima
La Granja
Radomiro Tomic
Resolution
Cerro Colorado
Pebble East
Morenci - Metcal
Lone Star
Escondida
Los Pelambres
Grasberg
Cananea
Bingham
Butte
Oyu Tolgoi
Collahuasi
Chuquicamata
Rio Blanco
El Teniente

Cu-Mo deposits
80

40

20
Contained copper metal (Mt)

Giant porphyry copper deposits

90

10

Where in the world? The largest

porphyry Cu-Mo deposits /
districts
AktogayAktogayAiderly
Aiderly
Butte
Butte
SW
SW Arizona
Arizona //
Sonora
Sonora
La
La Granja
Granja

Southern
Southern Peru
Peru

Northern
Northern Chile
Chile
Central
Central Chile
Chile

Porphyry Cu-Mo

Map source: http://www.gebco.net

Giant gold-rich porphyry

deposits

Bingham, USA (1800 t of contained Au)

1600

1200
Gold (tonnes)

Giant gold-rich porphyry

deposits
2800

Cu-Mo deposits

Cu-Au-Mo deposits
2000

Sipilay
Chuquicamata
Sar Cheshmeh
Atlas
Frieda River
Alumbrera
Galore Creek
El Teniente
Escondida
Tampakan
Minas Conga
Batu Hijau
Reko Diq
Ok Tedi
Panguna
Cerro Casale
FSE/Lepanto
Dalneye
Kal'makyr
Pebble West
Cadia district
Pebble East
Oyu Tolgoi
Bingham
Grasberg

Cu-Au deposits
2400

800

400

Locations of giant Au-rich

porphyry deposits
Galore
Galore
Creek
Creek

Dalneye
Dalneye
Almalyk
Almalyk

Oyu
Oyu Tolgoi
Tolgoi
Philippines
Philippines
PNG
PNG Irian
Irian Jaya
Jaya
Batu
Batu
Hijau
Hijau

Panguna
Panguna

Cadia
Cadia

Porphyry Cu-Au

Cerro
Cerro
Colorado
Colorado
Minas
Minas Conga
Conga

Reko
Reko
Diq
Diq

Bajo
Bajo de
de la
la
Alumbrera
Alumbrera
Cerro
Cerro
Casale
Casale

Map source: http://www.gebco.net

Alkalic or Subalkalic?

Na2O + K2O (wt%)

Porphyry Cu-Au-Mo deposit classification

16
12

Classification can be difficult due

to K- and Na-metasomatism
Silicaundersaturated
Silica-saturated
alkalic
alkalic
Cu-Au

Cu-Au(-Mo)

Cu-Mo

Cu-Au

Arizona calcHigh-K calcalkalic

alkalic

SW Pacific
calc-alkalic

40
Free gold in quartz-bornite
vein, Ridgeway, NSW

50

60
SiO2 (wt%)

70
Modified from Lang et al., 1995

Magma Chemistry
Metal endowment of
intrusion-related
deposits controlled
by the magmas:

101

Cu - Au

10

Fe2O3 /
FeO

10-1

Increasing
oxidation
Increasing
fractionation
10-3

10-2

10-1

Mo

Cu - Mo

100

W - Mo

Sn

Sn W

101

102

103

Rb/Sr
Modified from
Blevin, 2003

Anhydrite phenocryst with apatite

inclusions, North Parkes, NSW

oxidation state
compositional
evolution (e.g., SiO2)

Epochs of porphyry deposit formation

Magmatic affinity

Tectonic Setting

20

10

0
0

100

200
300
Age (Ma)

Calc-alkalic
High-K calc-alkalic
Alkalic
Data source: Kirkham & Dunne, 1999

400

500

100

200 300
Age (Ma)

Continental arc
Island arc
Collision zone
Arc of unknown type

400

500

Coppins Gap
Porphyry Mo
~2800 Ma

Cadia
Porphyry Cu-Au ( Mo)
~440 Ma

Bingham
Porphyry Cu-Au-Mo
~37 Ma

Grasberg
Porphyry Cu-Mo-Au
~2.5 Ma

Geodynamic Settings
Grasberg
Grasberg (3
(3 Ma)
Ma)
~28
~28 Mt
Mt Cu
Cu &
& 90
90 Moz
Moz
Au
Au
Ok
Ok Tedi
Tedi (1.2
(1.2 1.1
1.1 Ma)
Ma)
~5.5
~5.5 Mt
Mt Cu
Cu &
& 23
23 Moz
Moz
Au
Au
Porgera
Porgera (6.0
(6.0 Ma)
Ma)
~23
~23 Moz
Moz Au
Au

Cadia
Cadia (440
(440 Ma)
Ma)
2,979
2,979 Mt
Mt @
@ 0.45
0.45 g/t
g/t
Au,
Au, 0.26
0.26 %
% Cu
Cu

Wafi
Wafi (10
(10 Ma)
Ma)
501Mt
501Mt @
@ 0.95%
0.95% Cu,
Cu,
0.64
0.64 g/tAu
g/tAu

Lihir
Lihir (0.9
(0.9 0.4
0.4 Ma
Ma
~44
~44 Moz
Moz Au
Au
Panguna
Panguna (3.5
(3.5 Ma)
Ma)
~6.5
~6.5 Mt
Mt Cu
Cu &
& 28
28 Moz
Moz Au
Au

Emperor
Emperor (3.9
(3.9 Ma)
Ma)
~12
~12 Moz
Moz Au
Au

Porphyry Provinces
Porphyry deposits emplaced in
narrow time interval
Similar magma suites
General relationship to subduction
environment
Relationship to tectonic change

Island arc
Andean arc
Accreted arc Post orogenic belt
Behind-belt magmatic centres (shoshonitic)

Tectonic Setting
Porphyry copper deposits are the product of magma
genesis at convergent plate margins
Island Arc Subduction

Continental Arc Collision

www.geol.lsu.edu

Melting of lower crust by upwelling lithospheric and asthenosphic

mantle is the source of primitive and oxidized, metal- and
volatile-rich magmas, but

Tectonic Setting
Deposits also occur in post-collision settings

Lower crust melts as it is pushed into the lithospheric mantle

forming primitive and oxidized, metal- and volatile-rich magmas

Geologic Setting

Kelvin porphyry Cu prospect, Arizona

Porphyry ore deposits are generally emplaced at depths of 2-4 km

below the Earths surface

Deposits emanate from wet, evolved magmas

Geologic Setting

Porphyry ore deposits have long been recognized to form

beneath or within
andesitic stratovolcanic successions

Geologic Setting
Conceptual model developed in part from geologic
observations of the Bajo de la Alumbrera host rocks

New assessment of these rocks reveals

- the dominance of extensive basin-fill deposits
- volumetrically minor lavas, and
- peperites throughout

Alumbrera, Argentina

Nested dome complexes were the surficial expression

of the silicic volcanism coeval with at least the earliest
porphyritic intrusions

Mount St. Helens, USA

USGS/Cascades Volcano Observatory

Geologic Setting
Volcano-sedimentary basins are increasingly being recognized
as the geological setting for porphyry systems

Given the complex array of environments where

porphyry deposits can form requires more diverse
exploration models
Models will need to account for geologically-controlled variation
in near-surface hydrothermal features
Hydrological models will be influenced by host rock architecture

Deposit Form
Veins
?

Mag >
py

?
Peripheral
cp-gal-si
Au-Ag

Peripheral
cp-gal-si
Au-Ag
Low
pyrite
shell
py 2%
Pyrite
shell
py 10%
cp 0.1 -3 %
mb tr

Ore
shell
py 1%
cp 1-3%
mb 0.03%

Mag >
py, cp

Mag + py

Lowell and Guilbert, 1970

Veins

Veins
Veinlets

Veinlets

Veinlets >
disseminated

Low
grade
core
low total
sulfide
cp-py-mb

Veinlets >
disseminated
Disseminated
+
Microveinlets

Veinlets >
disseminated
Disseminated

Deposit Form
EAST

WEST

Propylitic Zone

Potassic Zone

FOV 3.5 km

Phyllic Zone

Bajo de la Alumbrera, Argentina

Intrusive
Geology

Far South East, Philippines

Antapaccay, Peru

North Parkes, NSW

Intrusion Geometries
LEGEND
LP3
Alluvium
Post-Mineralization
Porphyry

N
100 m

Northwest Porphyry

LA

LP3

Late P3 Porphyry

Quartz Eye Porphyry

P2

EP3
LA

Los Amarillos Porphyry

and igneous breccia

P2

P2 Porphyry

-663615

EP3
LP3

-2720
from Proffett, 2003

Early P3 Porphyry

Northeast Porphyry
Andesite volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks

3-D geology block model

Dinkidi Stock (Wolfe, 2001)

Blind
intrusions

Biotite-altered
Biotite-altered
trachyandesite
trachyandesite

QMP
QMP

E27 open pit,

North Parkes, NSW

Multi-phase intrusions

Granodiorite

PQM

PQM
Rio Blanco, Chile

Multi-phase intrusions

Biotite quartz monzonite intruded by

quartz monzonite porphyry, NorthParkes, NSW

Multi-phase intrusions
Multiple pipes, dykes or sills
typically comprise
mineralised intrusive
complexes
Only one or two intrusive
phases create significant
mineralisation
A number of factors may
affect an intrusions
capacity to exsolve
abundant volatiles and
metals, including:
depth of emplacement
volatile content
Early,
quartz
crystallisation
history
Early, high
highgrade
grade
quartz monzonite
monzonite porphyry
porphyry cut
cut by
by later,
later, lower
lower grade
grade crystal-rich
crystal-rich
Quartz
Quartz monzonite
monzonite porphyry,
porphyry, North
North Parkes
Parkes porphyry
porphyry Cu-Au
Cu-Au deposit,
deposit, NSW
NSW

Intrusion Geometries
Arizona Cu-Mo PCDs
Subeconomic
PCD

North Parkes Cu-Au PCDs

PCD

PCD

Laramide
volcanic
edifice

Ordovician
Volcanics

Laramide
Intrusive
complex

Ordovician
Intrusive
complex

PC intrusions

Dykes (shallow)
Pipes
Stocks
Plutons (deep)

Subeconomic
PCD

Late

Early

Sections from Lang

and Titley (1998) and
Lickfold et al. (2003)

Deposit Clusters
E27
E27
E22
E22

E48
E48
E37
E37

E28
E28

E31
E31

E26
E26

Endeavour
Endeavour porphyry
porphyry Cu-Au
Cu-Au
deposits,
deposits, North
North Parkes,
Parkes, NSW
NSW

Alteration and
Mineralisation
Porphyry deposits are
characterized by several
alteration assemblages:

Potassic
Propylitic
Phyllic (QSP)
Intermediate argillic
Advanced argillic

Understanding their spatial

distributions is vital for
exploration

Quartz-sulfide veins in hematite-altered

quartz monzonite porphyry, Hopetoun Au,

Lepanto mine

From Holiday and Cooke (2007), with

inspiration from Sillitoe and Thompson (2006)

qz-cp
veins in orthoclase-altered
dacite
Prehnite-calcite-pyrite
Biotite-magnetite-altered
Actinolite-cemented
Bladed
Biotite-magnetite
Epidote
calcite-cemented
vein
hydrothermal
hb-qz
inveins
chloritediorite
and
porphyry,
Ampucao,
Mankayan
altered
porphyry,
breccia,
Vuggy
basalt,
alteration,
lithocap,
Philex,
orthoclase-altered
El
Kelian,
quartz,
Ridgeway,
Teniente,
Philippines
Mankayan,
Indonesia
Lepanto,
Chile
NSW

Hydrothermal Alteration
Alteration assemblages:

Early

Biotite-K-feldspar magnetite-quartz-albite
(Potassic)
Garnet-epidote-actinolite chlorite-magnetite-hematite
(Calc-silicate)
Chlorite-epidote-albite
(Propylitic)
Chlorite-sercite

Late

(Intermediate Argillic)
Sercite-quartz-pyrite
(Phyllic)
Pyrophyllite-kaolinite
(Advanced Argillic)
Qz-mt-cp veins in potassic-altered
monzodiorite, Grasberg

Hydrothermal Alteration Assemblages

Mineralogy, nature and style

Observations need to include:
alteration type (dominant mineral/mineral assemblage)
dominant
subordinate

mineral assemblage
texture
intensity
distribution

Defining alteration assemblages

Dominant mineral

Mineral Assemblage

Composition

Generic Term

Kaolinitic

Kaolinite-montmorillonite ( sericitechlorite)

K, Ca, Mg-metasomatism

Argillic

Pyrophyllitic

Pyrophyllite-kaolinite ( quartz-sericite)

K, Ca, Mg-metasomatism

Advanced argillic

Sericitic-Chloritic

Chlorite-sercite ( montmorillonite-illitesmectite-calcite-epidote)

K, Ca, Mg-metasomatism

Intermediate
argillic

Sericitic

Sercite-quartz-pyrite (chlorite)

K, Na, Ca, Mgmetasomatism

Phyllic

Albitic

Albite epidote-chlorite-hematite

Na, Ca, Mg-metasomatism

Sodic

Feldspathic

K-feldspar biotite-quartz-sericite-albiteanhydrite-epidote

K-metasomatism

Potassic

Biotitic

Biotite K-feldspar-magnetite-quartzalbite-anhydrite

K-metasomatism

Potassic

Chloritic?

Garnet-epidote-actinolite-chloritecarbonate magnetite-hematite

Ca-, Na-metasomatism

Calc-silicate

Chloritic

Chlorite-epidote-albite carbonatesericite-montmorillonite-pyrite-hematite

Ca-Mg-metasomatism

Propylitic

Chloritic

Actinolite-chlorite-albite epidote

Ca, Na-metasomatism

Calc-sodic

Hydrothermal Alteration Assemblages

Mineral assemblage
Original component

Typical alteration replacement product

Magnetite, ilmentite and titano-magnetite

Pyrite, leucoxene, titanite, pyrrhotite, hematite

Pyroxene, amphibole, olivine, and biotite

Chlorite, illite, quartz, calcite, pyrite, anhydrite

Plagioclase

Calcite, albite, K-feldspar, quartz, anhydrite, chlorite, illite,

kaolinite, montmorillonite, epidote, sericite

Anorthoclase, sanidine and orthoclase

K-feldspar, albite, sericite

Quartz

Microcrystalline quartz

Keep in mind what the original mineral could have been, as typically

K-bearing minerals alter to similarly K-bearing minerals

Hydrothermal Alteration of Mafic Volcanics

bt-mt-Kspar-py

mt-bt-act-Kspar-py

alb-ep-act-chl-py

chl-ep-act-py

Alteration Textures

Infill textures (veins)

Breccias

Replacement textures

Alteration Textures

Pervasive

Selective

Vein Halo

Vein

(Strong Kflds)

(chl alt mafics and

ser-chl alt

(K-feldspar selvage
to tourmaline vein)

(qtz stockwork)

Rio Blanco

Alteration Intensity

Increasing alteration intensity

decreasing textural preservation

Weak-Moderate

Moderate

Strong

Intense

Pervasive Chl

Pervasive Kspar (chl)

Pervasive Kspar

Pervasive Kspar

Alteration Intensity

Most crystal edges

visible
Crystal core common
replaced

Most crystal edges

visible, some ghosting
Crystal core common
replaced/recrystallized

Most crystal edges

ghosted (rimmed by alt.
minerals)
Crystal cores are near
all replaced

Rock texture is totally

obscured

Weak-Moderate

Moderate

Strong

Intense

Pervasive Chl

Pervasive Kspar (chl)

Pervasive Kspar

Pervasive Kspar

Alteration Zonation

phyllic
(illiteqtz-py)

surface view
cross sectional view

Source: Proffett, 2003

potassic
(btKspar-mt-qtz)

inner potassic
(Kspar-bt-mt-qtz)

Potassic Alteration Assemblages

Kflds

bt-Kflds

tm-bt-Kflds-mt

(pervasive)

(pervasive)

(pervasive)

bt-tm-Kflds
chl overprint
Rio Blanco

Calc-Silicate Alteration (Skarn)

High-K calc-alkalic PCD

Gt-px-epi-qz-py-cp skarn,
Bingham Canyon, Utah

Calc-alkalic PCD

Mt-anh-cp skarn,
Atlas, Philippines

Alkalic PCD

Mt-hm-epi-chlcp skarn,
Little Cadia,

Propylitic
Alteration
Calc-alkalic PCD

Propylitic alteration,
Mankayan, Philippines

Alkalic PCD

Epi-ab alteration,
North Parkes, NSW

Alkalic PCD

Epi-cp-py veins with hematitic

alteration selvage, Ridgeway, NSW

Sodic Alteration
Alkalic PCD

Albite-sericite
alteration Cadia East,

Intermediate Argillic Alteration

Calc-alkalic PCD

Calc-Alkalic PCD

Alkalic PCD

Int arg alt cut by qz-il

alteration, FSE, Philippines

Pervasive int. arg. alteration,

Philex, Philippines

Chl-altered rock flour matrix breccia +

hem alteration halo, Cadia Hill, NSW

Alkalic PCD

Phyllic
Alteration
Calc-Alkalic PCD

Int arg alt cut by qz-illite

alteration, FSE, Philippines

Pervasive phyllic alteration

of QMP, E48, NSW

Vein Arrays

E26N

Ridgeway

E26N

Cadia Hill

Multi-phase vein stages

A veins

B veins

D veins

Vein Types
(Gustafson and Hunt,
A veins:1975)
Granular quartz-K-feldsparanhydrite-sulfide veins
generally lack internal symmetry
irregular and discontinuous
B veins:
continuous planar quartz veins
contain molybdenite
lack K-feldspar and any obvious
alteration halos
D veins:
Late sulfide veins contain pyrite
and lesser bornite, chalcopyrite,
enargite, tennantite, sphalerite and
galena
Quartz-anhydrite gangue

A
A veins
veins

B
B veins
veins

D
D veins
veins

Temporal Distribution of Alteration Textures

Vein stage 1 cut by stage 2
Ser-py-qtz vein
Bt-mt-alb
1a.

1.
2.

Qtz-alb-K-spar (py-cpy-moly) vein

Careful observation of cross cutting relationships

2.

Copper Moutain

Spatial Distribution of Alteration Textures

Increasing grade
switch from replacement to vein style alteration

Mapping out similar alteration assemblages in contrasting alteration textures

can be useful in determining proximity to ore

Spatial Distribution of Alteration Textures

Mapping out disseminated versus vein/fracture controlled magnetite

Alteration Paragenesis
QMP

+
+

+
+

Volcaniclastic
sandstone

+
+

+
+

Latite

+
+

+
+

Pervasive sericite alteration

Mottled hematite-sericite alteration

Vein-halo sericite alteration

Biotite-magnetite alteration

Monzonite dykes

Propylitic-altered trachyandesite

Irregular magnetite veinlets

Quartz-calcite-sulphide stockwork (sericitehematite alteration halos)

Calcite-orthoclase-bn-(cp)
veins (orthoclase halos)

Fault zone with quartz-pyritecarbonate

base metals infill (sericite alteration halo)

Quartz-bornite stockwork
(orthoclase halos)

Calcite-anhydrite-(gypsum)-fluorite veins

Quartz-bornite veins
(sericite halos)

Pyrite veins

E48 - Wolfe, 1994

Copper Mountain, BC

Sodic (alb-chl-py-cpy) overprint early formed Potassic (bt-mt-act) alteration assemblages

Cu and Fe sulfides replace bt-mt altered ferromagnesian minerals

Hypogene mineralisation
Main ore minerals: chalcopyrite, bornite,
gold, molybdenite
Gangue: qz, or, E26, NSW - Cu & Au Grades
anh, mt, bt
ser py
>2 g/t Au

1 - 2 g/t Au

Sulfide
zonation:
bornite-rich
core (+ Au)
chalcopyrite
outer pyrite
halo

0.5 - 1 g/t Au

>2 % Cu

1- 2 % Cu

0.5 1 % Cu

Late-stage
veins with
abundant pyrite
200 m
and base metal
sulfides can
10,600E
Bornite chalcopyrite - orthoclase
intergrowths,
Dinkidi, Philippines
complicate

10,200RL

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

9,800RL

+
+

+
+

10,000RL

+
+

9,600RL

+
+

9,450RL
10,800E

11,000E

11,200E

House, 1994

Sulfide Abundance and Texture

Disseminated

Disseminated

Vein

Trace (<1 vol. %)

2-5 vol.%

Minor disseminate

Deposit Form

Alkalic deposits

Alkalic porphyry Au-Cu deposits

Distance
0 km

0.8 km

0.3 km

alb-qtz-chl-cal
ill mt-ttn-rt-scap

Sodic

Time
Afton, BC

Magnetite-apatite veins

Potassic

Calc-potassic

Propylitic

chl-hem-or-alb-epap-mt-cal qtz-ttn-rt-act

or-alb-act-apmt-chl-cal qtz-ttn-rt

Au-Cu Ag-(Pd-Te)
act-gnt-bt-mtor-alb qtz-ep-ap-ttn-cal

Ore is localized in chemically reactive rocks.

Copper Mountain, British Columbia

Smoke around the Fire

High K calc-alkalic deposits

High-K Calc-Alkalic porphyry Au-Cu deposits

Distance
0 km

0.8 km

Propylitic

1.0 km

2.0 km

3.0 km

chl-ep-mt-cal qtz-ttn-rt

Nfract = 30-15/m

Potassic

Intermediate Argillic

Ksap >> Alb

bt-Kspar-mt

Au-Cu
Time

chl-ser

bt

Ag-Zn-Pb
act

epi veins epi-chl

Bajo de la Alumbrera, Argentina

phyllic
(illiteqtz-py)

surface view
cross sectional view

Source: Proffett, 2003

potassic
(btKspar-mt-qtz)

inner potassic
(Kspar-bt-mt-qtz)

Smoke around the Fire

D vein, Bajo de la Alumbrera

MnCO3 veins

1.1 Mt @ 6.36 g/t Au and 126 g/t Ag

3.5 km (x 150m x 25m)

Breccias in Hydrothermal Systems

1 - Magmatic-hydrothermal
breccias
Permeability enhancement
through the formation of a
subsurface breccia body
allows for focussed fluid
flow
Can precipitate abundant,
well-mineralised cement
which contains hypersaline
& vapour-rich fluid
inclusions
Clastic matrix and clasts
may be altered to high
temperature mineral
assemblages (e.g. biotite)
from D. Cooke, 2010

Volatile-saturated intrusion
undergoes catastrophic brittle
failure due to hydrostatic
pressure exceeding lithostatic
load and the tensile strength
of the wallrocks

Containment and
focussing of volatiles
birth of a magmatichydrothermal ore
deposit

Sulfide Mineralisation Styles

Clast alteration

Cement

Vein

Hydrothermal cement

Alteration of rock flour

Alteration of clasts
Tourmaline
breccia, Ro

Cross-cutting veins

Breccias in Hydrothermal
Systems
2 Phreatomagmatic
breccias
Clastic matrix & milled
clasts abundant
Surficial and subsurface
breccia deposits
Bedded and massive
breccia facies

Late intrusion
into active
hydrothermal
system

2 - 5 km
paleodept
h

Maardiatreme
breccia
complex

Venting of volatiles to
the surface
death of a porphyry
deposit
shortcut to the

from D. Cooke, 2010

Late-stage diatreme breccia, Dizon porphyry Cu-Au,

Philippines

Supergene enrichment

Oxidation can upgrade low grade resources

Idealised supergene enrichment blanket

Enrichment
Blanket

From Titley, 1982

Deposit Genesis

Batholithic Roots - Yerington, Nevada

Ann-Mason PCD

McArthur PCD

Dilles et al., 2000

Dismembered PCD and source Batholith

Porphyry Cu Deposit

Phyllic alteration

Advanced argillic alteration

Tosdal 2008

Magmatic-hydrothermal
transition

15
15 cm
cm

Comb quartz layers (USTs) in intra-mineral

monzonite, Ridgeway porphyry Cu-Au deposit,

Volatile Exsolution
Slushy textures are features of the
transition from magmatic to
hydrothermal conditions:
unidirectional solidification textures
(USTs)
miarolitic cavities
vein dykes
pegmatite pods and pegmatite veins

These textural features provide

evidence for volatile exsolution and
concentration in the top of
mineralizing intrusions
fertile magmas crystallise in batches
They may release volatiles episodically
through a significant part of their
crystallisation history
Comb-layered
Comb-layered quartz,
quartz, Korea
Korea

Porphyry ore genesis

Outflow and
mineralisation
Episodic fluid
accumulation
and release
Several kms

Tectonic trigger (e.g., ridge

subduction)
Incompatible behaviour of
metals and volatiles allows
magmatic transport of metals
and sulfur
Multiple phases of intrusive
activity one or more of which
efficiently concentrates and
releases metals
Fluid exsolution may be
triggered by mafic magma
underplating of felsic magma Volatile
migration
chamber
Cycles of volatile
accumulation and release
Felsic
at the apex of the
magma
mineralizing intrusion
(multiple seismic events)

Mafic
Mafic magma
magma (?)
(?)

Hypogene Ore Genesis

e
ers
sv
n
-tra
Arc

ts
en
m
ea
lin

B
PCD?

PCD?

er
p
Up

~
Ch Sca 5 k
m
l
km ang e
e

Upper crustal magma

chamber

us
r
c

Magma ascends to neutral

buoyancy level
Shutdown of volcanism?
Volatiles exsolved during fractional
crystallisation (mafic magma
involvement?)

Lo
w

Magma
flow in
dykes

Magma
flow in
plugs and
diapirs

er

cr

us
t

~2
0

Magma
flow in
dykes

B: Volatile Exsolution

Shear
Zone

Partial melting in migmatitic zone

at base of crust
Melts transferred to upper crust
along dykes in shear zones

Diatexite

M
Maaggm
maa flfloow
w bbyy
ppeerc
rcoola
latitioonn

A: Fertile Magma Production

Modified from
Richards (2003)

Mafic magmas as
fertilizers
Interaction of mafic and felsic magmas may be an
effective method of enhancing the volatile and
metal budget of felsic magmas
Thermal and chemical
instabilities can be
caused by mafic
underplating of felsic
magma bodies
metal, volatile and
fluid exsolution
magmatichydrothermal
mineralisation

1991 eruption of Mt Pinatubo, Philippines (image from http://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources)

Fluid Sources
Primitive hydrous K-rich mafic magmas have been shown
to be important in the formation of porphyry ore deposits
e.g., Northparkes (Lickfold et al. 2007)

Mantle-derived CO2-rich fluids

E22, Australia

Source of the sulfur

Ajax, Canada

Fluid Sources
Mingling of primitive alkalic magmas
Pd- and Pt-bearing (Au-rich) ore
Magmatic sulfides (rich in Ni-Cu Zn-As-Ag-Pb, Se-Mo-Pd)
Cu-Ni-rich melt inclusions
Cadia Hill

Representative PGE analyses

Deposit

Ag (g/t)

Au (g/t)

Pd (g/t)

Pt (g/t)

Copper Mnt

92

5.0

1.37

0.06

Afton

16.4

4.7

3.5

0.07

Skouries

57

35.8

2.67

0.20

Bingham

na

0.02

0.10

0.93

Elatsite

33

13.6

0.72

0.15

Santo Tomas II

45

40

2.67

1.85

Ok Tedi

na

17

0.62

0.02

Contributions of Cu, Au, PGEs and S

LMP, Bingham
Bingham, USA

Fluid Pathways

e.g., E26 (Lickfold et al. 2003)

Fluid Pathways
Fe-Zn-Cu : RGB composite
Quartz-magnetite UST Ridgeway, NSW

Red Fe; Green Zn; Blue Copper

Fe

Extreme magmas
oxidized melts
Cu Au-Mo bearing volatiles
Cl-, F, SO42-, CO32-. PO43-, OHAnhydrite-apatite E26, NSW
Ridgeway, Australia

Just as volatile-rich granite preserves evidence of volatile accumulation

Magma Emplacement
Quartz Eyes
1.0 mm

Bajo de la Alumbrera

Magma Emplacement

Ridgeway, Australia

Cathodoluminescence image

CL imaging of comb-quartz layered textures reveals well-defined

luminescent bands disrupted by irregular embayments and tubules

Cathodoluminescence image

~70 MPa

Th (V L): ~ 365C
X: 45- 47 wt.% NaCl equiv.
Average 0.3 wt.% Cu

Boiling Trails
Th (V L): up to 550C
X: 45 wt.% NaCl equiv.

~30 MPa

Near-Critical Behaviour
Th (V L): ~ 310C
X: 3 wt.% NaCl equiv.

Inclusion assemblages record volatile accumulation + release

[inside an apparently barren porphyritic intrusion]

Vein Emplacement
What are A veins?

A veins diffuse sugary textured vein

Extreme T fluids carried significant Fe and Si

Alumbrera, Argentina

Silicate melt inclusions in hydrothermal quartz veins

Alumbrera, Argentina

Vein Emplacement
A veins preserve the magmatic-hydrothermal transition
Primitive and Cu-rich (up to wt.
%) ore fluids

Cl

Cu

Recognition of these textures, including the quartz segregations,

may provide immediate evidence for a potentially fertile magma
Rio Blanco, Chile

Ore-forming fluids
Dinkidi porphyry Au deposit, Philippines

Wolfe, 2000

CO2-rich saline fluids

NaCl H2O CO2 KCl

rich in Fe-Cu-Zn-Mn-Ca-Ba-As (?REE)

Ore-forming fluids

~1500 ppm Cu (up to 2wt%)

Butte (from J. Wilkinson)

30m

3-5 wt% NaCl equiv., 3-8 mol% CO2

Trapped at ~650C, 2.5kb

Fluid Source
Meteoric water has long been thought to play a major
role in hydrothermal alteration and ore deposition

Potassic alteration
T = 350C to 550C, up to 845C
18O and D compositions Magmatic fluid

Phyllic alteration
T = up to 400C
18O and D compositions Magmatic fluid (> 200C)
Magmatic + Meteoric water (< 200C)

continuum between
high-T magmatic lower T meteoric water-dominated
hydrothermal systems

Fluid Source
Recognition of contrasting phyllic alteration is
important because it means that the distribution of
alteration zones and mineralization
may not fit the expected alteration pattern
so often
used to focus drilling programs

Phyllic alteration assemblages need not be post-ore

Hypogene Ore Genesis

Ore Formation
Cooling is a symptom, not a cause
The sulfur conundrum: H2Spredominant fluids, but sulfur
transported in the melt as SO2
Sulfate reduction mechanism?
(water-rock interaction, fluid
mixing)

Hydrothermal Alteration
Early K-metasomatism (brines):
lithostatic load
Late H-ion metasomatism
(gases): hydrostatic load
Bn-cp mineralisation, E27

Temperature and acidity

controls
P = 500 bars, qz saturated, log a (Al3+) = -5, log a (K+) =
-1.3
475

Andalusite
(advanced

425

argillic
alteration)

375

Fluid evolution from

275
feldspar- to mica- to
clay-stable conditions
250
3
equates to increasing
acidity (i.e.
from D. Cooke, 2010

Al3+(aq)

K-feldspar
K-feldspar
(potassic
(potassic
alteration)
alteration)

))
iioonn
rraatt
aallttee
llliicc
pphhyy

2+

300

ite
hyll

H
AlO

325

op ced
Pyr
n
a
v
(ad
illic
arg tion)
ra
alte

350

T (C)

400

)2
OH
Al(

HCl(aq) and KCl(aq) are

strongly associated
species at high
temperatures
They dissociate
strongly when T <
300C

450

((
vviittee
ssccoo
M
Muu

Phase relationships
for K-aluminosilicate
phases have
traditionally been
plotted on activity
ratio diagrams

Kaolinite
(argillic)
2

log a (KCl(aq)/HCl(aq))

Temperature and acidity

controls
P = 500 bars, qz saturated, log a (Al3+) = -5, log a (K+) =
-1.3
475

Clays and
aluminosilicates are
stable under acidic
conditions

Al3+(aq)
450

2+

300
Andalusite is
predicted to be stable 275
Kaolinite
at high temperatures
3+
Al
(argillic)
but is rarely observed 250 0
1
2
3
in advanced argillic
Strongly acidic
assemblages from D. Cooke, 2010

K-feldspar
K-feldspar

(phyllic
(phyllic alteration)
alteration)

325

Muscovite
Muscovite

350

(advanced
argillic
alteration)

375

Pyrophyllite

T (C)

argillic
alteration)

400

AlO

Micas and feldspars

are stable under
weakly acidic to
alkaline conditions

(advanced

Al(OH)2

Less hydrous clays

are stable at
higher T

Andalusite

425

pH

(potassic
(potassic
alteration)
alteration)

Alkaline

Fluid evolution from feldspar- to mica-stable conditions

equates to decreasing pH
Kalmakyr (Almalyk) Cu-Au, Uzbekistan

2.5 Gt @ 0.38% Cu and 0.5 g/t Au

Temperature and acidity

controls

350
325

AlO

300
275

Kaol

Al3+
250

Strongly acidic
from D. Cooke, 2010

(potassic
(potassic
alteration)
alteration)

pH

(calc-silicate alteration)
alteration)
(calc-silicate

Ca-garnet
Ca-garnet

e
sit

2+

Chlorite is stable
under weakly acidic
conditions when
temperatures are
less than ~350C

Fe-biotite
Fe-biotite
(phyllic
(phyllic alteration)
alteration)

375

Muscovite
Muscovite

Alunite

400

An
da
lu

425

Pyrophyllite

450

(advanced argillic alteration)

Kf
Kf

Al3+

T (C)

Calc-silicate and
calc-potassic
alteration
assemblages are
stable at high T
and high pH

P = 500 bars, qz saturated, log a (Al3+) = -5, log a (K+) = -1.3

log a (Ca2+) = -5, log a (Fe2+) = -6.5, log a (Cl-) = 1, log a (SO42-) =
-2
475

Fe-chlorite
Fe-chlorite
5

Alkaline

Alteration mineralogy:
Redox and acidity controls

36
0

Strongly acidic
from D. Cooke, 2010

pH

(calc-silicate alteration)
alteration)
(calc-silicate

Ca-garnet
Ca-garnet

Epidote
Epidote

SO42- (aq)

K-feldspar
K-feldspar

(potassic alteration)
alteration)
(potassic
HSO4- (aq)

(AA alteration)

325C
325C

Magnetite
Magnetite
Fe-biotite
Fe-biotite
(potassic
(potassic
alteration)
alteration)

Alkaline
Fe-chlorite
Fe-chlorite

HS--(aq)
HS
(aq)

34

Hematite
Hematite

H2S (aq)

32

(phyllic
(phyllic alteration)
alteration)

30

Muscovite
Muscovite

28

(advanced argillic
argillic
(advanced
alteration)
alteration)

Propylitic and calcpotassic alteration

assemblages are
produced by alkaline
fluids

26

Pyrophyllite
Pyrophyllite

they typically form

under reducing
conditions

24

AlOH2+

Chlorite and biotite

contain Fe2+

22

Al(OH)2+(aq)

they typically form

under oxidizing
conditions

Al3+(aq)

log f O2 (g)

Epidote and garnet

contain Fe3+

Alunite

T = 325C, P = 500 bars, qz saturated, log a (Ca2+) = -5, log a (Fe2+)

= -6.5,
3+
+
log a (Al ) = -5, log a (K ) = -1.3, log a (SO42-) = -2
20

Alteration Zoning
South American porphyry model

wall
rocks
potassic
propylitic

wall
rocks

potassic

phyllic

potassic

Lowell and Guilbert (1970) model

propylitic

Phyllic alteration
can be produced
by magmatichydrothermal
fluids
The phyllic
alteration zone can
cut through
potassic alteration
zones, and be
independently
mineralised

Alteration mineralogy:
Reaction paths

pH

(calc-silicate alteration)
alteration)
(calc-silicate

Fe-biotite
Fe-biotite
(potassic
(potassic
alteration)
alteration)

Alkaline
Fe-chlorite
Fe-chlorite

HS--(aq)
HS
(aq)

H2S (aq)

(phyllic
(phyllic alteration)
alteration)

325C
325C

Carefully observe
36
0
1
2
textural
relationships! from D. Cooke, 2010Strongly acidic

Muscovite
Muscovite

(advanced argillic
argillic
(advanced
alteration)
alteration)

34

Pyrophyllite
Pyrophyllite

32

Al(OH)2+(aq)

30

Ca-garnet
Ca-garnet

Epidote
Epidote

26

28

SO42- (aq)

HSO4- (aq)

K-feldspar
K-feldspar

(AA alteration)

24

log f O2 (g)

Acidification can
cause
transformations from
K-feldspar to sericite
It is not possible for
a fluid to evolve from
K-feldspar-stable first
to muscovite-stable
and then to epidotestable conditions

22

AlOH2+

If K-feldspar stable
fluids become more
alkaline, epidote may
be stabilized

Alunite

T = 325C, P = 500 bars, qz saturated, log a (Ca2+) = -5, log a (Fe2+)

= -6.5,
3+
+
log a (Al ) = -5, log a (K ) = -1.3, log a (SO42-) = -2
20

Conclusions

Diopside
Diopside orthoclase
orthoclase magnetite
magnetite vein
vein in
in diorite,
diorite,
Dinkidi
alkalic
porphyry
Cu-Au
deposit,
Philippines
Dinkidi alkalic porphyry Cu-Au deposit, Philippines

Porphyry Cu-Au-(Mo) deposits form in arc-related settings

Most abundant in Tertiary and Quaternary settings
(preservation)

Quartz stockwork veins and/or hydrothermal breccias

associated with potassic alteration typically host Cu-Au
mineralization
Replacement-style mineralization predominates in some