Measurement and Scaling

Measurement
If you cant measure it,
you cant manage it.
Bob Donath,
Consultant

12-2

Measurement and Scaling

Measurement means assigning numbers or
other symbols to characteristics of objects
according to certain pre-specified rules.

One-to-one correspondence between the

numbers and the characteristics being
measured.

The rules for assigning numbers should be

standardized and applied uniformly.

Rules must not change over objects or time.

Measurement and Scaling

Scaling involves creating a continuum upon
which measured objects are located.
Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each
respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100, with
1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely
Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of
a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling
is the process of placing the respondents on a
continuum with respect to their attitude toward
department stores.

Primary Scale
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

Types of Scales
Nominal
Nominal
Ordinal
Ordinal
interval
interval
Ratio
Ratio

12-6

Levels of Measurement
Nominal
Nominal

Classification
Classification

Ordinal
Ordinal
interval
interval
Ratio
Ratio

12-7

12-8

Nominal Scales
Mutually exclusive

and collectively
exhaustive
categories
Exhibits the
classification
characteristic only

Levels of Measurement
Nominal
Nominal
Ordinal
Ordinal

Classification
Classification
Classification
Classification
Order
Order

interval
interval
Ratio
Ratio

12-9

12-10

Ordinal Scales
Characteristics of

nominal scale plus

an indication of
order
Implies statement
of greater than and
less than

Levels of Measurement
Nominal
Nominal

Classification
Classification

Ordinal
Ordinal

Classification
Classification
Order
Order

interval
interval

Classification
Classification
Order
Order

Distance
Distance

Ratio
Ratio

12-11

12-12

Interval Scales
Characteristics of

nominal and ordinal

scales plus the
concept of equality
of interval.
Equal distance
exists between
numbers

Levels of Measurement
Nominal
Nominal

Classification
Classification

Ordinal
Ordinal

Classification
Classification
Order
Order

interval
interval

Classification
Classification
Order
Order

Distance
Distance

Ratio
Ratio

Classification
Classification
Order
Order

Distance
Distance
Natural
NaturalOrigin
Origin

12-13

12-14

Ratio Scales
Characteristics of

previous scales plus

an absolute zero
point
Examples
Weight
Height
Number of children

Nominal Scale Properties

Uniquely classifies
Sammy Sosa # 21
Barry Bonds # 25

Ordinal Scale Properties

Uniquely classifies
Preserves order
Win, place, & show

Interval Scale Properties

Uniquely classifies
Preserves order
Equal intervals
Consumer Price Index (Base 100)
Fahrenheit temperature

Ratio Scale Properties

Uniquely classifies
Preserves order
Equal intervals
Natural zero
Weight and distance

Primary Scales of
Measurement
Scale
Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Numbers
Assigned
to Runners

Finish
7

Finish

Rank Order
of Winners

Performance
Rating on a

Third
place

Second
place

First
place

8.2

9.1

9.6

15.2

14.1

13.4

0 to 10 Scale

Ratio

Time to
Finish, in

Illustration of Primary Scales of

Measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Scale

Scale

Scale

Preference

Preference
Ratings

No. Store

Rankings

3 months

1. Parisian
2. Macys
3. Kmart
4. Kohls
5. J.C. Penney
6. Neiman Marcus
7. Marshalls
8. Saks Fifth Avenue
9. Sears
10.Wal-Mart

7
2
8
3
1
5
9
6
4
10

79
25
82
30
10
53
95
61
45
115

1-7
5
7
4
6
7
5
4
5
6
2

11-17
15
17
14
16
17
15
14
15
16
12

Ratio
Scale
$ spent last

0
200
0
100
250
35
0
100
0
10

Primary Scales of
Measurement

Reliability & Validity in

Measurement
Validity
The ability of a scale to measure what was

intended to be measured

Reliability
The degree to which measures are free from

random error and therefore yield consistent

results

The Goal
of Measurement Validity

Reliability and Validity on

Target

Old Rifle
Low Reliability
(Target A)

New Rifle
High Reliability
(Target B)

New Rifle
Sun glare
Reliable but Not
Valid
(Target C)

Validity
V a lid it y
FAC E O R C O N TEN T

C R IT E R IO N V A L ID IT Y

C O N C U R R EN T

C O N S T R U C T V A L ID IT Y

P R E D IC T IV E

Reliability
R E L IA B IL IT Y
S T A B IL IT Y
TEST R ETEST

IN T E R N A L C O N S IS T E N C Y
E Q U IV A L E N T F O R M S

S P L IT T IN G H A L V E S

Sensitivity
A measurement instruments ability to

accurately measure variability in stimuli or

responses.

A Classification of Scaling Techniques

Scaling Techniques

Noncomparative
Scales

Comparative
Scales

Paired
Comparison

Rank
Order

Constant
Sum

Q-Sort and
Other
Procedures

Likert

Continuous
Itemized
Rating Scales Rating Scales

Semantic
Differential

Stapel

A Comparison of Scaling
Techniques
Comparative scales involve the direct

comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative

scale data must be interpreted in relative terms
and have only ordinal or rank order properties.

In noncomparative scales, each object is

scaled independently of the others in the

stimulus set. The resulting data are generally
assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

Comparative Scales
Advantages

Disadvantages

Small differences between

Ordinal nature of the

stimulus objects can be detected.

Same known reference points for

all respondents.
Easily understood and can be

applied.
Involve fewer theoretical

assumptions.
Tend to reduce halo or carryover

effects from one judgment to

another.

data
Inability to

generalize beyond
the stimulus objects
scaled.

Comparative Scaling
TechniquesA respondent is presented with two objects and
a)
Paired
Comparison
Scaling
asked
to select
one according to some
criterion.
The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
Paired comparison scaling is the most widely-used

comparative scaling technique.

With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are

required.
Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible

to convert paired comparison data to a rank order.

Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using

Paired Comparisons
Instructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of
shampoo brands. For each pair, please indicate which one of
the two brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use.

Recording Form:

J hirmack Finesse

J hirmack

Vidal
Head &
Sassoon Shoulders
0
1

Finesse

1a

Vidal Sassoon

Head & Shoulders

Pert

Number of Times
Preferredb

1
1

Pert
0
0
1
0

1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand
in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column
brand. bThe number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in
a

each column.

Paired Comparison Selling

The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The
consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with
the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of
1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a
soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very
important factors in the consumers purchasing decision, may not be a
good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New
Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired
comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful,
because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke.

A paired comparison
test

taste

Comparative Scaling
Techniquesb)
Rank
Order
Scaling

Respondents are presented with several objects

simultaneously and asked to order or rank them
according to some criterion.

It is possible that the respondent may dislike the

brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense.

Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in

ordinal data.
Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in

rank order scaling.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands

Using
Rank
Order
Scaling
Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of
preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most
and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred
brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you
have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference.
The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10.
No two brands should receive the same rank number.
The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right
or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands

Using Rank Order Scaling
Form
Brand

Rank Order

1. Crest

_________

2. Colgate

_________

3. Aim

_________

4. Gleem

_________

5. Sensodyne

_________

6. Ultra Brite

_________

7. Close Up

_________

8. Pepsodent

_________

9. Plus White

_________

10. Stripe

_________

Comparative Scaling
Techniques c)
Constant Sum Scaling
Respondents allocate a constant sum of units,
such as 100 points to attributes of a product to
reflect their importance.
If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent

assigns it zero points.

If an attribute is twice as important as some other

attribute, it receives twice as many points.

The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the

name of the scale.

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes

Using a Constant Sum Scale

Instructions

On the next slide, there are eight attributes of bathing

soaps. Please allocate 100 points among the attributes
so that your allocation reflects the relative importance
you attach to each attribute. The more points an
attribute receives, the more important the attribute is.
If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero
points. If an attribute is twice as important as some
other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes

Fig. 8.5 cont.
Using
a Constant Sum Scale
Form
Average Responses of Three Segments
Attribute
Segment II Segment III 8
2
1. Mildness
3
2. Lather
53
3. Shrinkage
9
4. Price
7
5. Fragrance
5
6. Packaging
13
7. Moisturizing
100
Sum
8. Cleaning Power

2
4
9
17
0
5
3
60
100

Segment I
4
17
7
9
19
9
20
15
100

Non-Comparative Scales

Non-comparative Scaling
Techniques
Respondents evaluate only one object at a time,

and for this reason non-comparative scales are

often referred to as monadic scales.
Non-comparative techniques consist of
continuous scales
itemized rating scales.

2.a) Continuous Rating

Respondents
rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position
Scale
on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.

How would you rate Shopper Stop as a department store?

Version 1
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best

Version 2
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----------------------------Probably the best
0 10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

Version 3
Very bad
Neither good
Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------------------Probably the
best
0
10 20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

RATE: Rapid Analysis and

Testing Environment
A relatively new research tool, the perception analyzer, provides continuous
measurement of gut reaction. A group of up to 400 respondents is presented with TV
or radio spots or advertising copy. The measuring device consists of a dial that
contains a 100-point range. Each participant is given a dial and instructed to
continuously record his or her reaction to the material being tested.
As the respondents turn the dials, the information is
fed to a computer, which tabulates second-bysecond response profiles. As the results are
recorded by the computer, they are superimposed
on a video screen, enabling the researcher to view
the respondents' scores immediately. The responses
are also stored in a permanent data file for use in
further analysis. The response scores can be broken
down by categories, such as age, income, sex, or
product usage.

2. b) Itemized Rating
Scales
The respondents are provided with a scale that has a

number or brief description associated with each

category.
The categories are ordered in terms of scale position,

and the respondents are required to select the

specified category that best describes the object
being rated.
The commonly used itemized rating scales are the

Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.

Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement
or
disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.

Strongly

Disagree

Neither

disagree

agree nor

agree

Agree

Strongly

2X

2X

3X

disagree

1. Sears sells high quality merchandise.

2. Sears has poor in-store service.

3. I like to shop at Sears.

The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis),

or a total (summated) score can be calculated.

When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative
statements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.

Semantic Differential
The Scale
semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end
points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic
meaning.
SEARS IS:
Powerful

--:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak

Unreliable

--:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable

Modern

--:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned

The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left

side of the scale and sometimes at the right.

This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly

those with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the
right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels.

Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored

on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.

A Semantic Differential Scale for

Measuring
Self-:---:---:---:---:---:---:---:
Concepts, Delicate
Person
1) Rugged
Concepts, and Product Concepts
2) Excitable

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm

3) Uncomfortable

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable

4) Dominating

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive

5) Thrifty

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent

6) Pleasant

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant

7) Contemporary

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete

8) Organized

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized

9) Rational

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional

10) Youthful

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature

Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories
numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale
is usually presented vertically.

SEARS

+5
+5
+4
+4
+3
+3
+2
+2X
+1
+1
HIGH QUALITY
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4X -4
-5
-5

POOR SERVICE

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the

same way as semantic differential data.

Basic Noncomparative
Scales

Scale

Basic
Characteristics

Examples

Advantages

Disadvantages

Continuous
Rating
Scale

Place a mark on a
continuous line

Reaction to
TV
commercials

Easy to construct

Scoring can be
cumbersome
unless
computerized

Itemized Rating Scales

Likert Scale

Degrees of
agreement on a 1
(strongly disagree)
to 5 (strongly agree)
scale

Measurement
of attitudes

Easy to construct,
administer, and
understand

More
time -consuming

Semantic
Differential

Seven - point scale

with bipolar labels

Brand,
product, and
company
images

Versatile

Controversy as
to whether the
data are interval

Stapel
Scale

Unipolar ten - point

scale, - 5 to +5,
witho ut a neutral
point (zero)

Measurement
of attitudes
and images

Easy to construct,
administer over
telephone

Confusing and
difficult to apply

Summary of Itemized Scale

Decisions
1) Number of categories
Although there is no single, optimal
number,
traditional guidelines suggest that there
should be between five and nine categories
2) Balanced vs. unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced to
obtain objective data
3) Odd/even no. of categories
If a neutral or indifferent scale
response is
possible for at least some respondents,
an odd number of categories should be used
4) Forced vs. non-forced
In situations where the respondents are
expected to have no opinion, the accuracy of
the data may be improved by a non-forced scale
5) Verbal description An argument can be made for labeling all or
many scale categories. The category descriptions should
be located as
close to the response categories as possible
6) Physical form
best selected

A number of options should be tried and the

Scale Evaluation
Scale Evaluation

Reliability

Test/
Retest

Alternative
Forms

Validity

Internal
Consistency

Content

Convergent

Criterion

Generalizability

Construct

Discriminant

Nomological

Measurement Accuracy
The true score model provides a framework
for understanding the accuracy of
measurement.
XO = X T + X S + X R
where
XO = the observed score or measurement
XT = the true score of the characteristic
XS = systematic error
XR = random error

Reliability
Reliability can be defined as the extent to which

measures are free from random error, XR. If XR =

0, the measure is perfectly reliable.
In test-retest reliability, respondents are

administered identical sets of scale items at two

different times and the degree of similarity
between the two measurements is determined.
In alternative-forms reliability, two equivalent

forms of the scale are constructed and the same

respondents are measured at two different times,
with a different form being used each time.

Reliability
Internal consistency reliability determines the

extent to which different parts of a summated

scale are consistent in what they indicate about
the characteristic being measured.
In split-half reliability, the items on the scale
are divided into two halves and the resulting half
scores are correlated.
The coefficient alpha, or Cronbach's alpha, is the
average of all possible split-half coefficients
resulting from different ways of splitting the scale
items. This coefficient varies from 0 to 1, and a
value of 0.6 or less generally indicates
unsatisfactory internal consistency reliability.

Validity
The validity of a scale may be defined as the extent

to which differences in observed scale scores reflect

true differences among objects on the characteristic
being measured, rather than systematic or random
error. Perfect validity requires that there be no
measurement error (XO = XT, XR = 0, XS = 0).
Content validity is a subjective but systematic

evaluation of how well the content of a scale

represents the measurement task at hand.
Criterion validity reflects whether a scale

performs as expected in relation to other variables

selected (criterion variables) as meaningful criteria.

Validity
Construct validity addresses the question of

what construct or characteristic the scale is, in

fact, measuring. Construct validity includes
convergent, discriminant, and nomological
validity.
Convergent validity is the extent to which the

scale correlates positively with other measures of

the same construct.
Discriminant validity is the extent to which a

measure does not correlate with other constructs

from which it is supposed to differ.
Nomological validity is the extent to which the

scale correlates in theoretically predicted ways

with measures of different but related constructs.

Relationship Between
Reliability and Validity

If a measure is perfectly valid, it is also perfectly

reliable. In this case XO = XT, XR = 0, and XS = 0.

If a measure is unreliable, it cannot be perfectly

valid, since at a minimum XO = XT + XR.

Furthermore, systematic error may also be present,
i.e., XS0. Thus, unreliability implies invalidity.
If a measure is perfectly reliable, it may or may not

be perfectly valid, because systematic error may

still be present (XO = XT + XS).
Reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient,

condition for validity.

Chapter
Seven
Validity
Issues
in
Causal or Experimental
Research Design:

Definitions and Concepts

Independent variables are variables or alternatives

that are manipulated and whose effects are measured

and compared, e.g., price levels.

Test

units are individuals, organizations, or other

entities whose response to the independent variables or
treatments is being examined, e.g., consumers or
stores.

Dependent variables are the variables which measure

the effect of the independent variables on the test units,

e.g., sales, profits, and market shares.

Extraneous variables are all variables other than the

independent variables that affect the response of the

test units, e.g., store size, store location, and
competitive effort.

Experimental Design
An experimental design is a set of procedures
specifying:
the test units and how these units are to be divided into
homogeneous subsamples,

what independent variables or treatments are to be

manipulated,

what dependent variables are to be measured; and

how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.

Basic Issues of Experimental

Design

Manipulation of the Independent Variable

Selection of Dependent Variable

Assignment of Subjects (or other Test Units)

Control Over Extraneous Variables

Manipulation of Independent
Variable
Classificatory Vs. continuous variables
Experimental and control groups
Treatment levels
More than one independent variable

Experimental Treatments
The alternative manipulations of the

independent variable being investigated

Validity in Experimentation
Internal validity refers to whether the

manipulation of the independent variables or

treatments actually caused the observed effects on
the dependent variables. Control of extraneous
variables is a necessary condition for establishing
internal validity.
External validity refers to whether the cause-

and-effect relationships found in the experiment

can be generalized. To what populations, settings,
times, independent variables and dependent
variables can the results be projected?

Extraneous Variables
History refers to specific events that are external

to the experiment but occur at the same time as

the experiment.

Maturation (MA) refers to changes in the test units

themselves that occur with the passage of time.

Testing effects are caused by the process of

experimentation. Typically, these are the effects on

the experiment of taking a measure on the
dependent variable before and after the
presentation of the treatment.

The main testing effect (MT) occurs when a prior

observation affects a latter observation.

Extraneous Variables
In the interactive testing effect (IT), a prior

measurement affects the test unit's response to the

independent variable.
Instrumentation (I) refers to changes in the
measuring instrument, in the observers or in the
scores themselves.
Statistical regression effects (SR) occur when test
units with extreme scores move closer to the average
score during the course of the experiment.
Selection bias (SB) refers to the improper
assignment of test units to treatment conditions.
Mortality (MO) refers to the loss of test units while
the experiment is in progress.

Controlling Extraneous
Variables
Randomization refers to the random assignment
of test units to experimental groups by using
random numbers. Treatment conditions are also
randomly assigned to experimental groups.
Matching involves comparing test units on a set

of key background variables before assigning

them to the treatment conditions.
Statistical control involves measuring the

extraneous variables and adjusting for their

effects through statistical analysis.
Design control involves the use of experiments

designed to control specific extraneous variables.

A Classification of Experimental
Designs
Figure 7.1

Experimental Designs

Pre-experimental

True
Experimental

One-Shot Case
Study

Pretest-Posttest
Control Group

Time Series

Randomized
Blocks

One Group PretestPosttest

Posttest: Only
Control Group

Multiple Time
Series

Latin Square

Static Group

Solomon FourGroup

Quasi
Experimental

Statistical

Factorial
Design

One-Shot Case Study

The one shot case study may be symbolically
represented as
X

01

A single group of test units is exposed to a

treatment X.
A single measurement on the dependent variable is

taken (01).
There is no random assignment of test units.
The one-shot case study is more appropriate for

exploratory than for conclusive research.

One-Group Pretest-Posttest
Design
01

02

A group of test units is measured twice.

There is no control group.
The treatment effect is computed as 02 01.
The validity of this conclusion is questionable

since extraneous variables are largely

uncontrolled.

Static Group Design

EG: X

01

CG: 02
A two-group experimental design.
The experimental group (EG) is exposed to the

treatment, and the control group (CG) is not.

Measurements on both groups are made only after

the treatment.
Test units are not assigned at random.
The treatment effect would be measured as 01 - 02.

True Experimental Designs:

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
EG:
CG:

R
R

01
03

X
04

02

Test units are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the

control group.
A pretreatment measure is taken on each group.
The treatment effect (TE) is measured as:(02 - 01) - (04 - 03).
Selection bias is eliminated by randomization.
The other extraneous effects are controlled as follows:
02 01= TE + H + MA + MT + IT + I + SR + MO
04 03= H + MA + MT + I + SR + MO
= EV (Extraneous Variables)
The experimental result is obtained by:
(02 - 01) - (04 - 03) = TE + IT
Interactive testing effect is not controlled.

Posttest-Only Control Group

Design
EG :

CG :

01
02

The treatment effect is obtained by:

TE = 01 - 02
Except for pre-measurement, the implementation

of this design is very similar to that of the pretestposttest control group design.

Quasi-Experimental Designs:
Time Series Design
01 02 03 04 05

X 06 07 08 09 010

There is no randomization of test units to treatments.

The timing of treatment presentation, as well as

which test units are exposed to the treatment, may

not be within the researcher's control.

Multiple Time Series Design

EG : 01 02 03 04 05

X 06 07 08 09 010

CG : 01 02 03 04 05

06 07 08 09 010

If the control group is carefully selected, this

design can be an improvement over the simple

time series experiment.
Can test the treatment effect twice: against the

pretreatment measurements in the experimental

group and against the control group.

Statistical Designs
Statistical designs consist of a series of basic
experiments that allow for statistical control and
analysis of external variables and offer the following
advantages:
The effects of more than one independent variable

can be measured.
Specific extraneous variables can be statistically
controlled.
Economical designs can be formulated when each
test unit is measured more than once.

The most common statistical designs are the

randomized block design, the Latin square design, and
the factorial design.

Randomized Block Design

Is useful when there is only one major external

variable, such as store size, that might influence

the dependent variable.
The test units are blocked, or grouped, on the

basis of the external variable.

By blocking, the researcher ensures that the

various experimental and control groups are

matched closely on the external variable.

Randomized Block
Design
Table 7.4
Block
Store
Number Patronage
1
2
3
4

Heavy
Medium
Low
None

Treatment Groups
Commercial Commercial Commercial
A
B
C
A
A
A
A

B
B
B
B

C
C
C
C

Latin Square Design

Allows the researcher to statistically control two

noninteracting external variables as well as to manipulate

the independent variable.
Each external or blocking variable is divided into an equal
number of blocks, or levels.
The independent variable is also divided into the same
number of levels.
A Latin square is conceptualized as a table (see Table 7.5),
with the rows and columns representing the blocks in the
two external variables.
The levels of the independent variable are assigned to the
cells in the table.
The assignment rule is that each level of the independent
variable should appear only once in each row and each
column, as shown in Table 7.5.

Latin Square Design

Table 7.5
Interest in the Store
Store Patronage
Low
Heavy
Medium
A
Low and none

High

Medium

B
C

C
B
B

Factorial Design
Is used to measure the effects of two or

more independent variables at various

levels.
A factorial design may also be

conceptualized as a table.
In a two-factor design, each level of one

variable represents a row and each level of

another variable represents a column.

Factorial Design
Table 7.6

Amount of Humor
Amount of Store
Information
Low

No
Medium
High
Humor
Humor
A
B

Humor
C

Medium

High