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MATERIALS
CONTENTS
Concept of stress &
strain,
Tensile Properties,
Impact,
hardness,
Rockwell,
Vickers,
Brinell hardness testing,
Fatigue,
Plastic Deformation,
Slip & Twinning,
Mechanism of Slip,
Work hardening,
Recovery,
Recrystallisation &
Grain growth
INTRODUCTION
The mechanical properties of a material are used to
determine its suitability for a particular application. It is
convenient to break the properties, and the tests that
measure them, into several types:
Slow application of stress, as in the tensile test, allows
dislocations time to move.
Rapid stress application, as in an impact test, measures the
ability of the material to absorb energy as it fails.
The materials response to the presence of cracks and flaws
that act as stress concentrators is measured by fracture
toughness.
Repeated application of stresses below the failure stress
determined in a tensile test can cause fatigue failure.
At high temperatures, materials deform continuously under
an applied stress, as measured by the creep test.
TENSILE TESTS
In the tensile test the strength of the material is
determined by subjected to a simple stretching operation.
Standard dimension test samples are pulled slowly at a
uniform rate in a testing machine
The strain, the elongation of the sample is done
The stress, the applied force divided by the original crosssectional area,
Modulus of elasticity:
The initial slope of the
curve, related directly to
the strength of the atomic
bonds.
YIELD STRENGTH:
The point at which a
consistent and measurable
amount of permanent
strain remains in the
specimen.
Tangent modulus: In solid mechanics, the tangent modulus is the slope of the
compression stress-strain curve at any specified stress or strain. Below the
proportional limit the tangent modulus is equivalent to Young's modulus. Above the
proportional limit the tangent modulus varies with strain and is most accurately found
from test data.
The tangent modulus is useful in describing the behavior of materials that have been
stressed beyond the elastic region. When a material is plastically deformed there is
no longer a linear relationship between stress and strain as there is for elastic
deformations. The tangent modulus quantifies the "softening" of material that
generally occurs when it begins to yield.
Although the material softens it is still generally able to sustain more load before
ultimate failure. Therefore, more weight efficient structure can be designed when
plastic behavior is considered. For example, a structural analyst may use the tangent
modulus to quantify the buckling failure of columns and flat plates.
TOUGHNESS
The total area under the curve which
measures the energy absorbed by the
specimen in the process of breaking.
NECKING
The Engineering Stress-Strain curve of a ductile material usually drops past the tensile
strength point. This is because the cross-sectional area of the material decreases
because of slip along atom planes that are oriented at an angle to the applied force (of
course, the slip occurs by dislocation motion). This local deformation is called a neck.
Because of the decreased area, a smaller amount of force is required to continue the
material's deformation. A plot of the true local stress vs. true strain, based on the
changing specimen dimensions rather than the original dimensions, would continue to
rise when necking occurs. However, these are rarely used because they are difficult to
measure.
Property:
Temperature Change
Increase
Decrease
Elastic Modulus:
Decrease
Increase
Tensile Strength:
Decrease
Increase
Yield Strength:
Decrease
Increase
Ductility:
Increase
Decrease
HARDNESS TESTS
Features: quick, inexpensive and non-destructive way to estimate the
tensile strength of a specimen
Procedure: make a small (sometimes microscopic) indentation into the
surface of a specimen, then use the force applied and the size of the
indentation (depth of penetration or diameter of the indenter) to calculate
a "hardness number."
The correlation between this value and the tensile strength allows this to
be used as a quality control parameter.
The Brinell Hardness Test The Brinell Hardness Test utilizes a steel sphere which
is usually 10 mm in diameter. The sphere is forced into the surface of a material.
Then, the diameter of the resulting impression is measured. The corresponding
Brinell Hardness number is then calculated.
KNOOP Test
It is a micro hardness tests and the indentations are such small that a
microscope is required to obtain the tests.
The load is less than 2N
VICKERS TEST
Uses Diamond pyramid indentor. It can be both micro hardness aswell as
macro hardness tests
Impact Testing
It is important to examine a material's reaction to short yet intense
loads because under such conditions, the material may behave in a
more brittle manner than is indicated from a simple tensile test.
The Charpy / Izode impact test is commonly used for this purpose.
A notched bar is placed in the test machine , and then a hammer is
allowed to fall and break it.
The energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen is measured by the
height to which the hammer rises.
The hammer strikes the bar behind the notch, and the fracture starts
at the bottom of the notch and tears through the bar
The impact energy is correlated with the toughness determined in a
tensile test (area under the stress-strain curve).
FATIGUE TESTING
Material that is subjected to a repeated application of a stress may fail
even if the stress it is subjected to is lower than the yield strength.
Such failure is referred to as Fatigue and results from the accumulation of
very small amounts of deformation in the nominally elastic range.
The typical fatigue test results plot the failure stress versus the number of
cycles (on a logarithmic scale).
A single application of stress is the same as the tensile strength, but the
stress needed to cause failure typically drops with the number of cycles.
For steels and many other BCC metals, an endurance limit (about half the
tensile strength) is reached below which there is a 50% chance that
failure will not occur with any number of cycles.
STRAIN HARDENING
RECOVERY
RECRYSTALLIZATION
GRAIN GROWTH