10 MJfirst

NITC
May 2, 2015
Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
METAL JOINING
Even the simplest object is an assembly of
components
Complex ones - greater number of partssubassemblies joined to perform the function
METHODSWELDING,
BRAZING,
SOLDERING,
ADHESIVE BONDING,
MECHANICAL JOINING
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WHY JOINING?
IMPOSSIBLE TO MAKE AS ONE PIECE
EASINESS AND ECONOMY IN
MANUFACTURE
EASY IN REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES DIFFERe.g.: Carbide tips of tools,corrosion resistant
parts, tungsten carbide tip of pens, brake shoes to
metal backing etc
TRANSPORTING SITE/ CUSTOMER
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CLASSIFICATION
According to the STATE of the materials being
joined
Extent of external heating- PRESSURE
Use of FILLER materials
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Joining Processes
LIQUID
SOLID
CHEMICAL
CUTTING ARC
CONSUMABLE
Oxy-fuel
Thermit
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SMAW
SAW
GMAW
FCAW
EGW
ESW
RESISTANCE
NON CONSUMABLE
Forge
Cold
Spot
GTAW
Ultrasonic
Seam
PAW
Friction
Projection
EBW
Explosion
Flash
LBW
Diffusion
Stud
Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN,
NITC
percussion
MECH.
JOINING
LIQUIDSOLID
Brazing
Soldering
Adhesive
Bonding
Fastening
Crimping
Seaming
Stitching
6
May 2, 2015
Welding
LIQUID STATE PROCESSES
Partial melting and fusion of joint

Physical and mechanical changes taking place
Can be with application of pressure or by addition of filler material
PARTIAL MELTING
BY 1.CHEMICAL REACTION
2. STRIKING AN ARC
3. MAINTAINING RESISTANCE BETWEEN THE PARTS
Prior to joining, PREPARATION TO BE DONE.

STANDARDS- AWS; ASTM- TYPES OF GROOVES,
JOINTS
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WELDING TERMINOLOGY
Slide 2 of 18
Standard location of elements of weld symbol

G- Grind C- Chip
F-File M-Machine
Size
Specification
process.
R- Rolling
Length of weld
Unwelded length
Finish symbol
Weld all around

L
No tailSMAW
Field weld
Reference line
Other side of arrow

Near side of Arrow
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Arrow connecting reference

line to arrow side of joint /to
edge prepared /member or
both
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Groove face
GROOVE ANGLE
Joint angle
ROOT
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Root Face
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WELDING TECHNIQUES
FOREHAND
BACKHAND
THIN
Same direction torch
Heat concentrated away from
bead
THICK
Opposite direction torch
Heat concentrated on bead
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Even
flow, rippled design
Broad bead
13
WELD POSITIONS
WELD MOVEMENTS
H
O
C
J
U
FLAT
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
OVERHEAD
ZIGZAG
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WELD POSITIONS
FLAT
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HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
OVERHEAD
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ASME Welding Positions

Note the welding progression, (vertically upwards or downwards),
must always be stated and it is an essential variable for both
procedures and performance qualifications.
Welding Positions For Groove welds:Test Position
ISO and EN
Flat
1G
PA
Horizontal
2G
PC
Vertical Upwards Progression
3G
PF
Vertical Downwards Progression
3G
PG
Overhead
4G
PE
Pipe Fixed Horizontal
5G
PF
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Upwards
6G
HL045
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Downwards
6G
JL045
Welding Position
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G
for Groove
Welds
F
for Fillet
Welds
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Welding Positions For Fillet welds:Test Position
ISO and EN
Flat (Weld flat joint at 45

degrees)
1F
PA
Horizontal
2F
PB
2FR
PB
Vertical Upwards
Progression
3F
PF
Vertical Downwards
Progression
3F
PG
Overhead
4F
PD
Pipe Fixed Horizontal
5F
PF
Welding Position
Horizontal Rotated
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G
for Groove
Welds
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for Fillet
Welds
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WELD MOVEMENTS
O
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ZIGZAG
STRAIGHT
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ASME P Material Numbers Explained

ASME has adopted their own designation for welding
processes, which are very different from the ISO definitions
adopted by EN24063.
Designation
Description
OFW
Oxyfuel Gas Welding
SMAW
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
SAW
Submerged Arc Welding
GMAW
Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG/MAG)
FCAW
Flux Cored Wire
GTAW
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
PAW
Plasma Arc Welding

Straight polarity = Electrode -ve
Reverse polarity = Electrode +ve
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ASME F Numbers
F Number
General Description
Heavy rutile coated iron powder electrodes :- A5.1 : E7024
Most Rutile consumables such as :- A5.1 : E6013
Cellulosic electrodes such as :- A5.1 : E6011
Basic coated electrodes such as : A5.1 : E7016 and E7018
High alloy austenitic stainless steel and duplex :- A5.4 : E316L-16
Any steel solid or cored wire (with flux or metal)
2X
Aluminium and its alloys
3X
Copper and its alloys
4X
Nickel alloys
5X
Titanium
6X
Zirconium
7X
Hard Facing Overlay
May 2, 2015
Note:- X represents any number 0 to 9

23
ASME A Numbers
These refer to the chemical analysis of the deposited weld and not
the parent material. They only apply to welding procedures in
steel materials.
A1
Plain unalloyed carbon manganese steels.
A2 to A4
Low alloy steels containing Moly and Chrome Moly
A8
Austenitic stainless steels such as type 316.
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Types of welds and symbols
FILLET, SQUARE BUTT, SINGLE V,

DOUBLE V, SINGLE U, DOUBLE U,
SINGLE BEVEL BUTT, DOUBLE BEVEL BUTT,
SINGLE J BUTT, DOUBLE J BUTT,
STUD, BEAD(EDGE OR SEAL), PLUG,
SPOT, SEAM, MASHED SEAM,
STITCH, PROJECTION,
FLASH, UPSET etc. (REFER sketches supplied)
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Multiple-pass layers.
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Weld layer sequence
29
Welding Positions
QW431.1 and
QW461.2
Basically there are three
inclinations involved.
Flat, which includes
from 0 to 15 degrees
inclination
15 - 80 degrees
inclination
Vertical, 80 - 90 degrees
For each of these
inclinations the weld
can be rotated from the
flat position to
Horizontal to overhead.
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UNDERWATER WELDING
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Can be with application of pressure or by addition of filler material
PARTIAL MELTING
2. STRIKING AN ARC
3. MAINTAINING RESISTANCE BETWEEN THE PARTS
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Can be with application of pressure or by addition of filler
material
PARTIAL MELTING
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Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

The oxyacetylene welding process
uses a combination of oxygen and
acetylene gas to provide a high
temperature flame.
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

OAW is a manual process in which the
welder must personally control the the torch
movement and filler rod application
The term oxyfuel gas welding outfit refers
to all the equipment needed to weld.
Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene gas
at extremely high pressure.
OXY ACETYLENE WELDING (OAW)
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Typical Oxyacetylene Welding

(OAW) Station
Oxygen Cylinders
Oxygen is stored within cylinders of
various sizes and pressures ranging from
2000- 2640 psi. (Pounds Per square inch)
Oxygen cylinders are forged from solid
armor plate steel. No part of the cylinder
may be less than 1/4 thick.
Cylinders are then tested to over 3,300 psi
using a (NDE) hydrostatic pressure test.
Oxygen Cylinders
Cylinders are regularly
re-tested using
hydrostatic (NDE) while
in service
Cylinders are regularly
chemically cleaned and
annealed to relieve
jobsite stresses created
by handling .
Cylinder Transportation
Never transport cylinders without the safety
caps in place
Never transport with the regulators in place
Never allow bottles to stand freely. Always
chain them to a secure cart or some other
object that cannot be toppled easily.
Oxygen Cylinders
Oxygen cylinders
incorporate a thin metal
pressure safety disk
made from stainless steel
and are designed to
rupture prior to the
cylinder becoming
damaged by pressure.
The cylinder valve
should always be
handled carefully
Pressure Regulators for

Cylinders
Reduce high storage
cylinder pressure to
lower working
pressure.
Most regulators have
a gauge for cylinder
pressure and
working pressure.
Pressure Regulators for

Cylinders
Regulators are shut off
when the adjusting
screw is turn out
completely.
Regulators maintain a
constant torch pressure
although cylinder
pressure may vary
Regulator diaphragms
are made of stainless
steel
Pressure Regulators Gauges

Using a Bourdon movement
Gas entering the gauge fills a
Bourdon tube
As pressure in the
semicircular end increases it
causes the free end of the
tube to move outward.
This movement is
transmitted through to a
curved rack which engages a
pinion gear on the pointer
shaft ultimately showing
pressure.
Regulator Hoses
Hoses are are fabricated
from rubber
Oxygen hoses are green in
color and have right hand
thread.
Acetylene hoses are red in
color with left hand thread.
Left hand threads can be
identified by a grove in the
body of the nut and it may
have ACET stamped on it
Check Valves &

Flashback Arrestors
Check valves allow gas
flow in one direction
only
Flashback arrestors are
designed to eliminate the
possibility of an
explosion at the cylinder.
Combination Check/
Flashback Valves can be
placed at the torch or
regulator.
Acetylene Gas
Virtually all the acetylene distributed for welding and cutting use
is created by allowing calcium carbide (a man made product) to
react with water.
The nice thing about the calcium carbide method of producing
acetylene is that it can be done on almost any scale desired.
Placed in tightly-sealed cans, calcium carbide keeps indefinitely.
For years, miners lamps produced acetylene by adding water, a
drop at a time, to lumps of carbide.
Before acetylene in cylinders became available in almost every
community of appreciable size produced their own gas from
calcium carbide.
Acetylene Cylinders
Acetylene is stored in cylinders specially designed
for this purpose only.
Acetylene is extremely unstable in its pure form at
pressure above 15 PSI (Pounds per Square Inch)
Acetone is also present within the cylinder to
stabilize the acetylene.
Acetylene cylinders should always be stored in the
upright position to prevent the acetone form
escaping thus causing the acetylene to become
unstable.
Acetylene Cylinders
Cylinders are filled with
a very porous substance
monolithic filler to
help prevent large
pockets of pure acetylene
form forming
Cylinders have safety
(Fuse) plugs in the top
and bottom designed to
melt at 212 F (100 C)
Acetylene Valves
Acetylene cylinder shut
off valves should only be
opened 1/4 to 1/2 turn
This will allow the
cylinder to be closed
quickly in case of fire.
Cylinder valve wrenches
should be left in place on
cylinders that do not
have a hand wheel.
Oxygen and Acetylene Regulator

Pressure Settings
Regulator pressure may vary with different
torch styles and tip sizes.
PSI (pounds per square inch) is sometimes shown as
PSIG (pounds per square inch -gauge)
Common gauge settings for cutting
1/4 material Oxy 30-35psi Acet 3-9 psi
1/2 material Oxy 55-85psi Acet 6-12 psi
1 material Oxy 110-160psi Acet 7-15 psi
Check the torch manufactures data for

optimum pressure settings
Regulator Pressure Settings

The maximum safe working pressure for
acetylene is 15 PSI !
Typical torch styles
A small welding torch, with throttle valves

located at the front end of the handle. Ideally
suited to sheet metal welding. Can be fitted
with cutting
attachment in place of the welding head shown.

Welding torches of this general design are by
far the most widely used. They will handle any
oxyacetylene welding job, can be fitted with
multiflame (Rosebud) heads for heating
applications, and accommodate cutting
attachments that will cut steel 6 in. thick.
A full-size oxygen cutting torch which has all

valves located in its rear body. Another style of
cutting torch, with oxygen valves located at the
front end of its handle.
Typical startup procedures

Verify that equipment visually appears safe IE: Hose
condition, visibility of gauges
Clean torch orifices with a tip cleaners (a small wire
gauge file set used to clean slag and dirt form the torch
tip)
Crack (or open) cylinder valves slightly allowing
pressure to enter the regulators slowly
Opening the cylinder valve quickly will Slam the
regulator and will cause failure.

Never stand directly in the path of a regulator when
opening the cylinder
Check for leaks using by listening for Hissing or
by using a soapy Bubble solution
Adjust the regulators to the correct operating
pressure
Slightly open and close the Oxygen and Acetylene
valves at the torch head to purge any atmosphere
from the system.

Always use a flint and steel spark lighter to light the
oxygen acetylene flame.
Never use a butane lighter to light the flame
Flame Settings
There are three distinct types of oxy-acetylene
flames, usually termed:
Neutral
Carburizing (or excess acetylene)
Oxidizing (or excess oxygen )
The type of flame produced depends upon the
ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture
which leaves the torch tip.
TYPES of FLAMES
Neutral- with inner cone(30400C-33000C), outer envelope,
(21000C near inner cone, 12600C at tip)- high heating
Reducing- Bright luminous inner cone, acetylene feather,
blue envelope
Low temperature, good for brazing, soldering, flame
hardening
Hydrogen, methyl acetylene, propadiene also used as fuel.
Oxidising- pointed inner cone, small and narrow outer

envelope
Harmful for steels, good for Cu- Cu based alloys
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63NITC
OXY ACETYLENE WELDING

(OAW)
Types of Flames
Neutral
Reducing
high heating
low temperature
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Oxidising
good for Cu- Cu alloys
64
Pure Acetylene and

Carburizing Flame profiles
Neutral and Oxidizing Flame

Profiles
Flame definition
The excess acetylene flame (Fig. 2), as its name implies, is created
when the proportion of acetylene in the mixture is higher than
that required to produce the neutral flame. Used on steel, it will
cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld metal.
The neutral flame (Fig. 3) is produced when the ratio of oxygen to
acetylene, in the mixture leaving the torch, is almost exactly oneto-one. Its termed neutral because it will usually have no
chemical effect on the metal being welded. It will not oxidize the
weld metal; it will not cause an increase in the carbon content of
the weld metal.
The oxidizing flame (Fig. 4) results from burning a mixture which
contains more oxygen than required for a neutral flame. It will
oxidize or burn some of the metal being welded.
THERMIT WELDING
LIQUID STATE JOINING PROCESS
PARTIAL MELTING BY CHEMICAL REACTION
USE OF Fine particles of iron oxide, aluminium oxide, iron &
aluminium
Termed THERMITE- based on Therm, meaning heat
Involves exothermic reactions between metal oxides and metallic
reducing agents
Heat of reaction used for welding.
Reactions are:
(3/4) Fe3 O4 + 2 Al --- (9/4) Fe + Al2O3 + Heat
3 FeO + 2 Al --- 3 Fe + Al2O3 + Heat
Fe2O3 + 2Al --- 2Fe + Al2O3+ Heat
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THERMIT WELDING
THERMIT WELDING
Slide 13 of 18
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Mixture is non explosive. Produces temperature of 32000 C

within a minute
Practically about 22000- 24000 C. Other materials to impart
special properties added. Applying a Mg fuse of special
compounds of peroxides, chlorates/ chromates.
Welding copper, brasses, bronzes and copper alloys to steel
using oxides of copper, nickel, aluminium, manganese
temperatures of 50000 C obtained
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THERMIT WELDING OF RAILS

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Effects of expansion and

contraction
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CONTROLLING DISTORTION
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HEAT AFFECTED ZONE
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SOLID STATE PROCESSES

Joining without fusion of work pieces
No liquid (molten ) phase present in joint
Principle: If two clean surfaces are brought into
atomic contact with each other - made with
sufficient pressure -(in the absence of oxide film
and other contaminents) they form bonds and
produce strong joint
To improve strength, heat and some movement of
mating surfaces by plastic deformation employed.
Eg: USW, Friction Welding (FRW)
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FORGE WELDING (FOW)

Both elevated temperature and pressure applied
to form strong bond between members
Components heated and pressed/ hammered
with tools, dies or rollers
Local plastic deformation at interface breaks up
the oxide films improves bond strength.
Not for high load bearing applications.
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COLD WELDING (CW)

Pressure applied to work pieces either through dies
or rolls
One (or both) of the mating parts must be ductile
Interface cleaned prior to welding- brushing etc.
Rolling metal
Roll
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Bare metal
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EXPLOSIVE WELDING (EXW)

Solid state bonding process
Joining by the cohesive force between atoms of two intimate
contact surfaces
High pressure waves- thousands of MPa created To weld dissimilar metals, thick to thin, high difference in
Melting Point metals.
Not a costly process
Extremely large surfaces can be joined (2m X 10 m)
Welding of heat treated metals without affecting the process
No HAZ
Incompatible metals joined(thin foils to heavy plates)
severe deformation needed for joining.

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Principle:
Explosive Impulse used to produce extremely high
normal pressure and a slight shear or sliding
pressure ( uses a detonator for this)
Two properly laid metal surfaces brought together with high
relative velocity at high pressure
Large amount of plastic interaction between surfaces results.
Two ways
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(1)Contact technique
Plastic interaction by positioning explosive charge to deliver shock
waves at an oblique angle to parts to be welded- Less frequently
used.
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(2) Impact technique

Two pieces explosively projected towards each other.
Impact with high velocity (200 400 m/s)
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Severe deformation needed for joining

(minimum 40 to 60%), as welding is by
pressure.
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Detonation velocity approx. 7000 m/s in the

detonation front.
Produces pressure at interface 7000 to 70,000 atms.
Parts driven at an angle Velocity of impact and angle
of collapse selected. Joining as s result of intense
plastic flow at the surface called surface jetting
For good joint, surface to be free from contaminants
Pressure sufficient to bring surfaces within
interatomic distances of each other
[ In a range of speed and angle of impact, a high
velocity metal jet forms. Removes surface
contamination.
Speed, angle(10 to 100) of detonation important]
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Bond as strong as the weaker of the two

obtained. 100 % efficient joint, (eg. In sheet
forming in aerospace industries)
At the interface, microhardness slightly
increased. (because of plastic deformation
and strain hardening- a very thin hardness
zone)
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Titanium cladding common

Others- Ni, SS(50 mm), tantalum, carbon steels,
for heat exchangers, tubes, pressure vessels, etc.
No change in chemical and physical properties of
parent metal
But, not for brittle alloys. Metal must possess
some ductility.
[Quantity of charge, detonation velocity, and
deformation characteristics of flyer plate decide
the weld]
Also spot welding by small charge. Handy
explosive spot welding sets available (for 10mm
to 12 mm spots)
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Minus points: :
Severe deformation needed for joining
(minimum 40 to 60/ 50, as welding is by
pressure.
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Can be with application of pressure or by addition
of filler material
Prior to joining, PREPARATION TO BE DONE
STANDARDS- AWS; ASTMTYPES OF GROOVES, JOINTS
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LIQUID STATE PROCESS

PARTIAL MELTING
BY STRIKING AN ARC
AFTER THE INVENTION OF ELECTRICITY
HOW ARC STRUCK?
ARC COLUMN THEORY
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ARC COLUMN THEORY
ELECTRICAL / IONIC THEORY
IONS FROM ANODE TO CATHODE,

AS METAL IONS ARE +VE CHARGED
TOUCH AND THEN ESTABLISH A GAP
TO BALANCE THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ANODE +
IONS COLLIDE WITH GAS MOLECULES

PRODUCES A THERMAL IONISATION LAYER
DC
CATHODE -
IONISED GAS COLUMN AS HIGH

RESISTANCE CONDUCTOR
ON STRIKING CATHODE, HEAT GENERATED
TERMED AS IONIC THEORY
NOT COMPLETE IN EXPLAINING ARC
COLUMN THEORY
THUS, ELECTRON THEORY
ELECTRON THEORY
ARC COLUMN THEORY
IONS FROM ANODE TO CATHODE

AS METAL IONS ARE +VE
CHARGED
-VELY CHARGED ELECTRONS
DISSOCIATED FROM CATHODE
MOVE OPPOSITE WITH HIGH
VELOCITY
ANODE +
CATHODE -
DC
(MASS- 9.1x 10-28 gm)

CAUSES HEAT IN ARC COLUMN
RELEASES HEAT ENERGY IN
STRIKING THE ANODE
CALLED
ELECTRON IMPINGEMENT
AND
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IONIC BOMBARDMENT
92
ANODE+
HIGH HEAT
ELECTRON IMPINGEMENT
LOW HEAT
MEDIUM HEAT
IONIC BOMBARDMENT
CATHODE -
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MAGNETIC FLUX THEORY

THE COLUMN NOT FLAIRING
DUE TO THE FLUX LINES AROUND
THE ARC COLUMN.
(Right hand Thumb Rule)
THIS COMPLETES THE ARC COLUMN
THEORY
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POLARITY
AC
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Currents higher than

those of DCRP can be
employed (400A to 500 A
for 6 mm electrode)
Arc cleaning of the base
metal
Normal penetration
Equal heat distribution at
electrode and job
Electrode tip is colder as
compared to that in
DCRP
Average arc voltage in
argon atmosphere is 16V
95
DCRP
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Currents generally less

than 125 amps (up to 6
mm dia electrodes) to
avoid overheating
2/3rd heat at electrode
and 1/3rd at the job
Least penetration
Average arc voltage on
argon atmosphere is
19V
Chances of electrode
overheating, melting and
losses
Better arc cleaning
action
96
DCSP
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Welding currents up to
1000 amps can be
employed for 6 mm
electrodes
33.33% heat is generated
at the electrode and
66.66% at the job.
Deep penetration
Average arc voltage in an
argon atmosphere is 12 V
Electrode runs colder as
compared to AC or DCRP
No are cleaning of base
metal
97
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

(SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),

Also known as Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welding
Informally as stick welding,
is a manual arc welding process that uses a
consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld.
An electric current, in the form of either
alternating current or direct current from a
welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc
between the electrode and the metals to be joined.
As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode
disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a
shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which
protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
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Because of the versatility of the process and

the simplicity of its equipment and operation,
shielded metal arc welding is one of the
world's most popular welding processes.
It dominates other welding processes in the
maintenance and repair industry, used
extensively in the construction of steel
structures and in industrial fabrication.
The process is used primarily to weld iron
and steels (including stainless steel) but
aluminum, nickel and copper alloys can also
be welded with this method.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) , a
modification to SMAW is growing in
popularity
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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Uses an open electric arc, so risk of
burns to be prevented by
protective clothing in the form of heavy
leather gloves and long sleeve jackets.
The brightness of the weld area can lead
arc eye, in which ultraviolet light causes
the inflammation of the cornea and can
burn the retinas of the eyes.
Welding helmets with dark face plates to
be worn to prevent this exposure
New helmet models have been produced
that feature a face plate that self-darkens
upon exposure to high amounts of UV
light.
To protect bystanders, especially in industrial environments, transparent
welding curtains often surround the welding area. These are made of a
polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the
UV light from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the filter
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2015 in helmets.
102
glass
ARC EYE
Arc eye, also known as arc flash or welder's flash or

corneal flash burns, is a painful condition sometimes
experienced by welders who have failed to use adequate
eye protection.
It can also occur due to light from sunbeds, light
reflected from snow (known as snow blindness), water
or sand. The intense ultraviolet light emitted by the arc
causes a superficial and painful keratitis.
Symptoms tendDr.to
occur a number of hours
N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
after exposure and typically resolve
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Signs
Intense lacrimation
Blepharospasm
Photophobia
Fluorescein dye staining will reveal corneal ulcers
under blue light
Management
Instill topical anaesthesia
Inspect the cornea for any foreign body
Patch the worse of the two eyes and prescribe analgesia
Topical antibiotics in the form of eye drops or eye
ointment or both should be prescribed for prophylaxis
against infection
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EQUIPMENT
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Various
and NITC
an electrode holder
May 2, 2015welding electrodes
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PURPOSE OF COATING
Gives out inert or protective gas- shields
Stabilizes the arc- by chemicals
Low rate consumption of electrode- directs arc and
molten metal
Removes impurities and oxides as slag
Coatings act as insulators- so narrow grooves welded
Provide means to introduce alloying elements
Bare electrodes - carbon- more conductive- slow

consumption in welding
May 2, 2015
107
ELECTRODE COATING INGREDIENTS

Slag forming ingredients- silicates of sodium, potassium, Mg,
Al, iron oxide, China clay, mica etc.
Gas shielding- cellulose, wood, starch, calcium carbonate
De-oxidising elements- ferro manganese, ferro silicon- to
refine molten metal
Arc stabilizing calcium carbonate, potassium silicate,
titanates, Mg silicate etc.
.Alloying elements- ferro alloys, Mn, Mo., to impart special
properties
Iron powder- to improve arc behaviour, bead appearance
Other elements - to improve penetration, limit spatter,
improve metal deposition rates,
May 2, 2015
108
May 2, 2015
109
Submerged arc welding
May 2, 2015
110
May 2, 2015
CONTROL PANEL
111
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Is a common arc welding process.
A continuously fed consumable solid or tubular
(metal cored) electrode used.
The molten weld and the arc zone are protected
from atmospheric contamination by being
submerged under a blanket of granular fusible
flux.
When molten, the flux becomes conductive, and
provides a current path between the electrode
and the work
May 2, 2015
112
Normally operated in the automatic or

mechanized mode.
Semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with
pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are
available.
The process is normally limited to the 1F, 1G, or
the 2F positions (although 2G position welds
have been done with a special arrangement to
support the flux). Deposition rates approaching
45 kg/h have been reported this compares to
~5 kg/h (max) for shielded metal arc welding.
Currents ranging from 200 to 1500 A are
commonly used; currents of up to 5000 A have
been used (multiple arcs).
May 2, 2015
113
Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire

variations of the process exist
SAW strip-cladding utilizes a flat strip
electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm
thick).
DC or AC power can be utilized, and
combinations of DC and AC are common
on multiple electrode systems.
Constant Voltage welding power supplies
are most commonly used, however
Constant Current systems in combination
with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are
available.
May 2, 2015
114
Material applications
Carbon steels (structural and vessel
construction);
Low alloy steels;
Stainless Steels;
Nickel-based alloys;
Surfacing applications (wearfacing, buildup, and corrosion resistant overlay of
steels).
May 2, 2015
115
Advantages of SAW
High deposition rates (over45 kg/h) have been
reported;
High operating factors in mechanized
applications;
Deep weld penetration;
Sound welds are readily made (with good
process design and control);
High speed welding of thin sheet steels at over
2.5 m/min is possible;
Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.
May 2, 2015
116
Limitations of SAW
Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and
some nickel based alloys;
Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions;
Normally limited to long straight seams or
rotated pipes or vessels;
Requires relatively troublesome flux handling
systems;
Flux and slag residue can present a health &
safety issue;
Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.
May 2, 2015
117
Key SAW process variables
Wire Feed Speed (main factor in welding current control);

Arc Voltage;
Travel Speed;
Electrical Stick-Out (ESO) or Contact Tip to Work (CTTW);
Polarity and Current Type (AC or DC).
Other factors
Flux depth/width;
Flux and electrode classification and type;
Electrode wire diameter;
Multiple electrode configurations.
May 2, 2015
118
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
Gas tungsten arc welding
May 2, 2015
120
GTAW
Fusion Welding Process
Arc Between Non-Consumable
Tungsten Rod And Work
Arc & Weld Pool Shielded By Argon/Gas
Filler Wire Separately Added To Weld
Pool
Welding Torch & Tungsten Rod Cooled
by Flow OF Argon / Cooling Water
May 2, 2015
121
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

ELECTRODE NOT CONSUMED
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES USED
ARGON- HEAVIER FOR NARROW AND LIMITED
EXPANSION,WIDER, DEEPER PUDDLE
HELIUM FOR EVEN EXPANSIONLIMITED
STRESS BUILDUP
MORE He, MORE HEAT IN ARC
Ar-He MIX FOR AUTOMATIC GTAW
Ar- CO2 FOR CARBON STEELS, ECONIMICAL,
INCREASES WETTING ACTION
GTAW TORCH- WATER OR AIR COOLED
CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE.(IIIr TO SMAW)
May 2, 2015
122
GTAW Equipment & Accessories

Power Source Inverter, Thyrister, Rectifier,
Generator
High Frequency Unit
Water Cooling System
Welding Torch- (Ceramic Cup, Tungsten Rod, Collet,
Gas-lens)
Pedal Switch
Argon Gas Cylinder
Pressure Gauge, Regulator, Flow Meter
Earthing Cable With Clamp
May 2, 2015
123
Equipment & Accessories

Pressure Regulator
Flow Meter
Tungsten Rod
Argon Gas In
Cooling Water In
Solenoid
Valve
Argon Cylinder
Gas Lens
Ceramic Cup
Arc
Welding Cable & Cooling

Water In Tube
Cooling Water Out
Argon Shielding
Work
Pedal Switch
May 2, 2015
HF Unit &
Water Cooling
System
High Frequency
Connection
Power Source
124
Equipment
GTAW torch with various

electrodes, cups, collets and gas
diffusers
May 2, 2015
GTAW torch, disassembled
125
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),

commonly known as Tungsten Inert Gas
(TIG) welding
Is an arc welding process that uses a

nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce
the weld.
The weld area is protected from atmospheric
contamination by a shielding gas (usually an
inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal is
normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it.
A constant current welding power supply
produces energy which is conducted across the
arc through a column of highly ionized gas and
vapors known
as a plasma.
May metal
2, 2015
NITC
126
Most commonly used to weld thin sections of

stainless steel and light metals such as
aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys.
The process grants the operator greater
control over the weld than competing
procedures such as
shielded metal arc welding and
gas metal arc welding, allowing for stronger,
higher quality welds.
GTAW is comparatively more complex and
difficult to master, and furthermore, it is
significantly slower than most other welding
techniques.
A related process, plasma arc welding, uses a
slightly different welding torch to create a
more focused welding arc and as a result is
automated.
Mayoften
2, 2015
127
GTAW system setup
May 2, 2015
128
May 2, 2015
129
Applications
Aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas

tungsten arc welding, the process is used in a number of other
areas.
Many industries use GTAW for welding thin workpieces,
especially nonferrous metals.
It is used extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles, and
is also frequently employed to weld small-diameter, thin-wall
tubing.
Is often used to make root or first pass welds for piping of
various sizes.
In maintenance and repair work, the process is commonly used
to repair tools and dies, especially components made of
aluminum and magnesium.
Because the welds it produces are highly resistant to corrosion
and cracking over long time periods, GTAW is the welding
procedure of choice for critical welding operations like sealing
spent nuclear fuel canisters before burial.
May 2, 2015
130
ABOUT THE POWER SOURCE

DCRP, DCSP, ACHF USED
ELECTRODES OF 0.25 mm TO 6.4 mm FOR
DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS
ELECTRODES CODED, WITH COLOR STRIPS
BEST FOR ALUMINIUM, SINCE OXIDE FILM BREAKS
BY PENETRATION
Frequent cleaning and shaping of electrode tip to be done
May 2, 2015
131
GTAW ranks the highest in terms of the

quality of weld produced.
Operation must be with free from oil,
moisture, dirt and other impurities, as
these cause weld porosity and
consequently a decrease in weld
strength and quality.
To remove oil & grease, alcohol or
similar commercial solvents used, while
a stainless steel wire brush or chemical
process remove oxides from the
surfaces of metals like aluminum.
Rust on steels removed by first
grit blasting the surface and then using a
wire brush to remove imbedded grit.
These steps important when DCEN
used, because this provides no cleaning
during the welding process, unlike
DCEPor AC.
To maintain a clean weld pool during welding, the shielding gas flow should be
sufficient and consistent so that the gas covers the weld and blocks impurities in
the atmosphere. GTA welding in windy or drafty environments increases the
May of
2, 2015
Dr. N.
NITC
amount
shielding gas necessary
toRAMACHANDRAN,
protect the weld,
increasing the cost and 132
making the process unpopular outdoors.
Quality
Because of GTAW's relative difficulty and the

importance of proper technique, skilled
operators are employed for important
applications.
Low heat input, caused by low welding
current or high welding speed, can limit
penetration and cause the weld bead to lift
away from the surface being welded.
If there is too much heat input, the weld
bead grows in width while the likelihood of
excessive penetration and spatter increase.
If the welder holds the welding torch too far
from the workpiece, shielding gas is wasted
and the appearance of the weld worsens.
May 2, 2015
133
If the amount of current used exceeds the

capability of the electrode, tungsten
inclusions in the weld may result. Known as
tungsten spitting, it can be identified with
radiography and prevented by changing the
type of electrode or increasing the electrode
diameter.
If the electrode is not well protected by the
gas shield or the operator accidentally allows
it to contact the molten metal, it can become
dirty or contaminated. This often causes the
welding arc to become unstable, requiring
that electrode be ground with a diamond
abrasive to remove the impurity.
May 2, 2015
134
GTAW welding torches designed for either automatic

or manual operation and are equipped with cooling
systems using air or water. The automatic and
manual torches are similar in construction, but the
manual torch has a handle while the automatic torch
normally comes with a mounting rack.
The angle between the centerline of the handle and
the centerline of the tungsten electrode, known as
the head angle, can be varied on some manual
torches according to the preference of the operator.
Air cooling systems are most often used for lowcurrent operations (up to about 200 A), while water
cooling is required for high-current welding (up to
about 600 A).
The torches are connected with cables to the power
supply and with hoses to the shielding gas source
and where used, the water supply.
May 2, 2015
135
The internal metal parts of a torch

are made of hard alloys of copper
or brass in order to transmit
current and heat effectively.
The tungsten electrode must be
held firmly in the center of the
torch with an appropriately sized
collet, and ports around the
electrode provide a constant flow
of shielding gas.
The body of the torch is made of
heat-resistant, insulating plastics
covering the metal components,
providing insulation from heat and
electricity to protect the welder.
May 2, 2015
136
GTAW TORCH
Torch Handle
Cap with collet For

Holding Tungsten
Cooling Water Outlet

Argon Gas Inlet
Cooling Water Inlet Tube with cable

Ceramic Cup
Argon Shielding Gas
Tungsten Rod
Base Metal
Earthing Cable
May 2, 2015
Arc
137
The size of the welding torch nozzle depends

on the size of the desired welding arc, and
the inside diameter of the nozzle is normally
at least three times the diameter of the
electrode.
The nozzle must be heat resistant and thus is
normally made of alumina or a ceramic
material, but fused quartz, a glass-like
substance, offers greater visibility.
Devices can be inserted into the nozzle for
special applications, such as gas lenses or
valves to control shielding gas flow and
switches to control welding current.
May 2, 2015
138
Power supply
May 2, 2015
GTAW uses a constant

current power source,
meaning that the current (and
thus the heat) remains
relatively constant, even if
the arc distance and voltage
change.
This is important because
most applications of GTAW
are manual or semiautomatic,
requiring that an operator
hold the torch.
Maintaining a suitably steady
arc distance is difficult if a
constant voltage power
source is used instead, since
it can cause dramatic heat
variations and make welding
more difficult.
139
The preferred polarity of the GTAW system depends largely on

the type of metal being welded.
DCEN is often employed when welding steels, nickel, titanium,

and other metals. It can also be used in automatic GTA welding
of aluminum or magnesium when helium is used as a shielding
gas. The negatively charged electrode generates heat by
emitting electrons which travel across the arc, causing thermal
ionization of the shielding gas and increasing the temperature
of the base material. The ionized shielding gas flows toward
the electrode, not the base material, and this can allow oxides
to build on the surface of the weld.
DCEP is less common, and is used primarily for shallow welds

since less heat is generated in the base material. Instead of
flowing from the electrode to the base material, as in DCEN,
electrons go the other direction, causing the electrode to reach
very high temperatures. To help it maintain its shape and
prevent softening, a larger electrode is often used. As the
electrons flow toward the electrode, ionized shielding gas
flows back toward the base material, cleaning the weld by
removing oxides and other impurities and thereby improving its
quality and appearance.
May 2, 2015
140
AC commonly used when welding aluminum and

magnesium manually or semi-automatically, combines
the two direct currents by making the electrode and
base material alternate between positive and negative
charge. This causes the electron flow to switch
directions constantly, preventing the tungsten electrode
from overheating while maintaining the heat in the base
material. This makes the ionized shielding gas
constantly switch its direction of flow, causing
impurities to be removed during a portion of the cycle.
Some power supplies enable operators to use an unbalanced

alternating current wave by modifying the exact percentage of time
that the current spends in each state of polarity, giving them more
control over the amount of heat and cleaning action supplied by
the power source.
In addition, operators must be wary of rectification, in

which the arc fails to reignite as it passes from straight
polarity (negative electrode) to reverse polarity (positive
electrode).
To remedy the problem, a square wave power supply
can
be used, as can
frequency
May
2, 2015
Dr. N.high
RAMACHANDRAN,
NITC voltage to
141
encourage ignition.
Tungsten Rod
Tungsten Rod
Non Consumable Electrode.

Maintains Stable Arc
Tip to be Ground to a cone Shape of 60 to 30
angle
Thoriated Tungsten for General Application,
Zerconiated Tungsten for Aluminium Welding
Sizes :- 2, 2.4 & 3 mm
May 2, 2015
Ground to
50 angle
142
The electrode used in GTAW is

ISO
made of tungsten or a tungsten
ISO Color
Class
alloy, because tungsten has the
highest melting temperature among
metals, at 3422 C.
WP
Green
The electrode is not consumed
WC20
Gray
during welding, though some erosion
WL10
Black
(called burn-off) can occur.
WL15
Gold
Electrodes can have either a clean
finish or a ground finishclean finish WL20 Sky-blue
electrodes have been chemically
WT10
Yellow
cleaned, while ground finish
WT20
Red
electrodes have been ground to a
WT30
Violet
uniform size and have a polished
surface, making them optimal for
WT40
Orange
heat conduction.
WY20
Blue
The diameter of the electrode can
WZ3
Brown
vary between 0.5 mm and 6.4 mm,
WZ8
White
and their length can range from 75
toMay
610
mm .
2, 2015
AWS Class
AWS
Color
Alloy [18]
EWP
Green
None
EWCe-2
Orange
~2% CeO2
EWLa-1
Black
~1% LaO2
EWLa-1.5
Gold
~1.5% LaO2
EWLa-2
Blue
~2% LaO2
EWTh-1
Yellow
~1% ThO2
EWTh-2
Red
~2% ThO2
~3% ThO2
~4% ThO2
~2% Y2O3
EWZr-1
Brown
~0.3% ZrO2
~0.8% ZrO2
143
A number of tungsten alloys have been standardized by the

International Organization for Standardization and the
American Welding Society in ISO 6848 and AWS A5.12, respectively, for use
in GTAW electrodes- refer table
Pure tungsten electrodes (classified as WP or EWP) are general purpose and

low cost electrodes. Cerium oxide (or ceria) as an alloying element improves
arc stability and ease of starting while decreasing burn-off. Using an alloy of
lanthanum oxide (or lanthana) has a similar effect. Thorium oxide (or thoria)
alloy electrodes were designed for DC applications and can withstand
somewhat higher temperatures while providing many of the benefits of other
alloys.
However, it is somewhat radioactive, and as a replacement, electrodes with
larger concentrations of lanthanum oxide can be used. Electrodes containing
zirconium oxide (or zirconia) increase the current capacity while improving arc
stability and starting and increasing electrode life.
Electrode manufacturers may create alternative tungsten alloys with specified

metal additions, and these are designated with the classification EWG under
the AWS system.
Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW, the major
exception being the welding of thin materials. Filler metals are available with
different diameters and are made of a variety of materials. In most cases, the
filler metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld pool manually, but some
call for an automatically
fed filler metal,
Mayapplications
2, 2015
NITC which is fed from rolls. 144
shielding gases
Necessary in GTAW to protect the welding area from atmospheric

gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, which can cause fusion
defects, porosity, and weld metal embrittlement if they come in
contact with the electrode, the arc, or the welding metal. The gas
also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal, and it
helps start and maintain a stable arc.
The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors,
including the type of material being welded, joint design, and
desired final weld appearance.
Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW,
since it helps prevent defects due to a varying arc length. When
used with alternating current, the use of argon results in high
weld quality and good appearance.
Another common shielding gas, helium, is most often used to
increase the weld penetration in a joint, to increase the welding
speed, and to weld conductive metals like copper and
aluminum.
A significant disadvantage is the difficulty of striking an arc
with helium gas, and the decreased weld quality associated
with a varying arc length.
May 2, 2015
145
Shielding Gas
Inert Gas - Argon , Helium

Common Shielding Gas Argon
When Helium Is Used Called Heli Arc Welding
When Argon Is Used Called Argon Arc Welding
Inert Gas Prevents Contamination Of Molten Metal
It Prevents Oxidation Of Tungsten Rod
It Ionizes Air Gap and Stabilizes Arc
It Cools Welding Torch & Tungsten Rod
May 2, 2015
146
Shielding Gas
Argon - Purity 99.95%
Impure Argon Results In Porosities
Purity Verified by Fusing BQ CS plate
Leakage of Argon in Torch Results in
Porosity.
Check Leakage by Closing the Ceramic Cup
With Thump
May 2, 2015
147
Argon Gas Cylinder

Light Blue In Colour
Full Cylinder Pressure: 1800 psi ( 130 Kgs / cm2 )
Volume Of Argon In Full Cylinder: 7.3 M3
Commercial Argon (99.99%) Cost: Rs 70/- Per M3
High Purity Argon (99.999) Cost: Rs 87/- Per M3
May 2, 2015
148
Back Purging
Purging Gas Commercial Argon or Applicable to Single
Nitrogen
Sided full penetration
Prevents oxidation of
Filler Wire
Welding Torch
root pass from opposite
side of weld
Essential for high alloy
steels, nonferrous
Purging
Purging Gas In
Gas Out
metals and alloys
Root Pass
Purging
Desirable For All
chamber
Material
May 2, 2015
149
Argon-helium mixtures are also frequently utilized in

GTAW, since they can increase control of the heat input
while maintaining the benefits of using argon. Normally,
the mixtures are made with primarily helium (often about
75% or higher) and a balance of argon. These mixtures
increase the speed and quality of the AC welding of
aluminum, and also make it easier to strike an arc.
Argon-hydrogen, is used in the mechanized welding of
light gauge stainless steel, but because hydrogen can
cause porosity, its uses are limited.
Nitrogen can sometimes be added to argon to help
stabilize the austenite in austentitic stainless steels and
increase penetration when welding copper. Due to
porosity problems in ferritic steels and limited benefits,
however, it is not a popular shielding gas additive.
May 2, 2015
150
Materials
Most commonly used to weld stainless steel
and nonferrous materials, such as aluminum
and magnesium, but it can be applied to
nearly all metals, with notable exceptions
being lead and zinc.
Its applications involving carbon steels are
limited not because of process restrictions,
but because of the existence of more
economical steel welding techniques, such
as gas metal arc welding and
shielded metal arc welding.
GTAW can be performed in a variety of otherthan-flat positions, depending on the skill of
the welder and the materials being welded.
May 2, 2015
151
A TIG weld showing an

accentuated AC etched zone
May 2, 2015
Closeup view of an
aluminium TIG weld AC etch zone
152
Aluminum and magnesium are most often welded using

alternating current, but the use of direct current is also
possible, depending on the properties desired. Before
welding, the work area should be cleaned and may be
preheated to 175-200 C for aluminum or to a maximum
of 150 C for thick magnesium workpieces to improve
penetration and increase travel speed.
AC current can provide a self-cleaning effect, removing
the thin, refractory aluminium oxide (sapphire) layer that
forms on aluminium metal within minutes of exposure to
air. This oxide layer must be removed for welding to
occur. When alternating current is used, pure tungsten
electrodes or zirconiated tungsten electrodes are
preferred over thoriated electrodes, as the latter are
more likely to "spit" electrode particles across the
welding arc into the weld.
Blunt electrode tips are preferred, and pure argon
shielding gas should be employed for thin workpieces.
Introducing helium allows for greater penetration in
workpieces,
can make NITC
arc starting difficult. 153
May thicker
2, 2015
Dr. but
N. RAMACHANDRAN,
Direct current of either polarity, positive or negative,

can be used to weld aluminum and magnesium as
well.
DCEN allows for high penetration, and is most
commonly used on joints with butting surfaces,
such as square groove joints. Short arc length
(generally less than 2 mm or 0.07 in) gives the best
results, making the process better suited for
automatic operation than manual operation.
Shielding gases with high helium contents are most
commonly used with DCEN, and thoriated electrodes
are suitable.
DCEP is used primarily for shallow welds, especially
those with a joint thickness of less than 1.6 mm.
While still important, cleaning is less essential for
DCEP than DCEN, since the electron flow from the
workpiece to the electrode helps maintain a clean
weld. A large, thoriated tungsten electrode is
commonly used, along with a pure argon shielding
May gas.
2, 2015
154
Steels
For GTA welding of carbon and stainless steels, the
selection of a filler material is important to prevent
excessive porosity. Oxides on the filler material and
workpieces must be removed before welding to prevent
contamination, and immediately prior to welding, alcohol
or acetone should be used to clean the surface.
Preheating is generally not necessary for mild steels less
than one inch thick, but low alloy steels may require
preheating to slow the cooling process and prevent the
formation of martensite in the heat-affected zone.
Tool steels should also be preheated to prevent cracking
in the heat-affected zone. Austenitic stainless steels do
not require preheating, but martensitic and ferritic
chromium stainless steels do. A DCEN power source is
normally used, and thoriated electrodes, tapered to a
sharp point, are recommended. Pure argon is used for
thin workpieces, but helium can be introduced as
thickness increases.
May 2, 2015
155
Dissimilar metals
Welding dissimilar metals often introduces new difficulties to

GTA welding, because most materials do not easily fuse to
form a strong bond. Welds of dissimilar materials have
numerous applications in manufacturing, repair work, and the
prevention of corrosion and oxidation. In some joints, a
compatible filler metal is chosen to help form the bond, and
this filler metal can be the same as one of the base materials
(eg:, using a stainless steel filler metal stainless steel and
carbon steel as base materials), or a different metal (such as
the use of a nickel filler metal for joining steel and cast iron).
Very different materials may be coated or "buttered" with a
material compatible with a particular filler metal, and then
welded. In addition, GTAW can be used in cladding or
overlaying dissimilar materials.
When welding dissimilar metals, the joint must have an
accurate fit, with proper gap dimensions and bevel angles.
Care should be taken to avoid melting excessive base material.
Pulsed current is particularly useful for these applications, as it
helps limit the heat input. The filler metal should be added
quickly, and a large weld pool should be avoided to prevent
dilution of the base materials.
May 2, 2015
156
Process variations
Pulsed-current
In the pulsed-current mode, the welding current rapidly
alternates between two levels.
The higher current state is known as the pulse current,
while the lower current level is called the background
current.
During the period of pulse current, the weld area is
heated and fusion occurs. Upon dropping to the
background current, the weld area is allowed to cool
and solidify.
Pulsed-current GTAW has a number of advantages,
including lower heat input and consequently a reduction
in distortion and warpage in thin workpieces. In
addition, it allows for greater control of the weld pool,
and can increase weld penetration, welding speed, and
quality. A similar method, manual programmed GTAW,
allows the operator to program a specific rate and
May
2, 2015
Dr. N. variations,
RAMACHANDRAN, making
NITC
magnitude
of current
it useful for 157
specialized applications.
Dabber
The Dabber variation is used to precisely place
weld metal on thin edges. The automatic
process replicates the motions of manual
welding by feeding a cold filler wire into the weld
area and dabbing (or oscillating) it into the
welding arc. It can be used in conjunction with
pulsed current, and is used to weld a variety of
alloys, including titanium, nickel, and tool steels.
Common applications include rebuilding seals in
jet engines and building up saw blades, milling
cutters, drill bits, and mower blades
May 2, 2015
158
Heat-affected zone
The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the

darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone,
the medium gray the heat affected zone, and
the lightest gray the base material.
May 2, 2015
159
The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the area of base

material, either a metal or a thermoplastic, which has
had its microstructure and properties altered by welding.
The heat from the welding process and subsequent recooling causes this change in the area surrounding the
weld. The extent and magnitude of property change
depends primarily on the base material, the weld filler
metal, and the amount and concentration of heat input
by the welding process.
The thermal diffusivity of the base material plays a large
role if the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is
high and the HAZ is relatively small. Alternatively, a low
diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The
amount of heat inputted by the welding process plays an
important role as well, as processes like oxyfuel welding
use high heat input and increase the size of the HAZ.
Processes like laser beam welding give a highly
concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small
HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with
individual processes
varying somewhat
in heat input160
May the
2, 2015
NITC
To calculate the heat input for arc welding

procedures, the formula used is:
where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I =

current (A), and S = welding speed (mm/min). The
efficiency is dependent on the welding process used,
with shielded metal arc welding having a value of
0.75, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc
welding, 0.9, and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.
May 2, 2015
161
Types Of GTAW Power Source

Inverter- DC
Thyrister DC
Motor Generator DC
Rectifier DC
Transformer AC (For Aluminium Welding Only)
May 2, 2015
162
Power Source
Provides Electric Energy Arc Heat
Drooping Characteristic
OCV Approx. 90V,
Current Range 40 A to 300 A ( Capacity Of M/s)
Arc Voltage 18V to 26V
May 2, 2015
163
Characteristic Of GTAW
Power Source
Drooping Constant Current
V
V1
V2
May 2, 2015
Vertical
Curve
A1 A2
A
164
High Frequency Unit

Provides High Voltage Electric Energy With Very
high Frequency 10000 Cycles / Sec.
Initiates low energy Arc / Spark & Ionize Air Gap.
Electrically charges Air Gap For welding Current to
Jump Across the Tungsten Tip & BM to Form An
Arc.
HF Gets Cut Off, Once Welding Arc Struck.
May 2, 2015
165
Water Cooling System

Provides Cooling Water To Welding Torch.
Cools Tungsten Rod, Torch handle & Welding
Cable.
Cooling Water Returns through Flexible Tube Which
Carries welding cable within.
May 2, 2015
166
Pedal Switch
When Pedal Pressed
Solenoid valve opens, Argon gas flows
High Frequency current jumps from
tungsten rod generating sparks
Welding current flows generating an
Switches system
arc across tungsten rod and work.
on And off in sequence
High frequency gets cut off from the
system & welding continues.
When Pedal Released
1 Current gets cut off, Arc extinguishes
2 Gas flow remains for few more
seconds before it stops.
May 2, 2015
167
Argon Gas Cylinder- Pressure Regulator +

Flow Meter
Cylinder Valve
Pressure gauges
Flow Meter
Flow Regulator
Cylinder Stores Argon At

High Pressure
Regulator Regulates
Cylinder Pressure to
Working Pressure
Pressure Regulator
Connection To Torch
Flow Meter Controls Flow

Rate
Argon Cylinder
May 2, 2015
168
Tools For GTAW

Head Screen
Hand gloves
Chipping Hammer
Wire Brush
Spanner Set
May 2, 2015
169
Filler Wire
Added Separately to the weld pool.
Compatible to base metal
Used in cut length for manual welding.
Used from layer wound spool for automatic
welding.
Sizes :- 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4 & 3 mm
May 2, 2015
170
ASME Classification Of Filler Wire

SS Filler Wire:
SFA-5.9, ER 308, 308L, 316, 316L, 347, 309
LAS Filler Wire:
SFA 5.28, ER 70S A1, ER 80S B2, ER90S D2,
ER 80S Ni2
CS Filler Wire:
SFA- 5.18 , ER 70S2
C = 0.07%, Mn = 0.9% 1.4%, Si = 0.4 0.7%, P = 0.025%, S = 0.035%
May 2, 2015
171
Dos & Don'ts In GTAW

Dos
Donts
Always Connect
Electrode Ve
Keep Always Flow
Meter Vertical
Check & Confirm
Argon Purity
Clean Groove & Filler
wire With Acetone
Grind Tungsten Tip to
Point
May 2, 2015
Dont Strike Arc With

Electrode + Ve
Dont strike Arc Without
Argon Flow
Dont Strike Arc By
touching Tungsten Rod
Dont Touch Weld Pool
With Tungsten Rod
Dont Lift and break Arc
172

Dos
Break The Arc Only By

Pedal Switch
Lift The Torch only After
5 Sec Of Arc Break.
Ensure Pre Purging &
Post Purging of 5Sec
Ensure Argon Flow &
Water Circulation To
Torch
May 2, 2015
Donts
When Arc is Stopped Dont

Lift Torch immediately.
Dont Weld With Blend
Tungsten Rod
Dont Weld With Argon
Leaking Torch
Dont Weld Without Water
Circulation
173

Dos
Provide Back Purging For

Single Sided Full
Penetration Welds
Use N2 or Argon as Back
Purging Gas For CS &
LAS
Use Argon As Back
Purging Gas For SS &
Non Ferrous Alloys
May 2, 2015
Donts
Dont Weld Single Sided

Full Penetration Welds
Without Back Purging
Dont Use N2 As Back
Purging Gas For Non
Ferrous Alloys
Dont Empty Ag Cylinders
Fully.
174
Defects In GTAW
1. Cracks
3. Porosity
5.Lack Of Penetration
7.Overlap
9. Under Flush
11. Tungsten Inclusion
May 2, 2015
2. Lack Of Fusion
4. Undercut
6. Excess Penetration
8. Suck Back
10. Burn Through
11.Stray Arcing
175
Crack
1)
2)
3)
4)
Cause
Wrong Consumable
Wrong Procedure
Improper Preheat
Inadequate Thickness
In Root Pass
1)
2)
3)
4)
Remedy
Use Right Filler Wire
Qualify Procedure
Preheat Uniformly
Add More Filler Wire
in root Pass
crack
May 2, 2015
176
Lack Of Fusion
Cause
Remedy
1) Inadequate Current
1) Use Right Current
2) Wrong Torch angle
2) Train /Qualify welder
3) Improper bead placement 3) Train/Qualify Welder
Lack Of Fusion
May 2, 2015
177
Porosity
Cause
1) Impure Argon Gas
2) Argon Leak Within Torch
3) Defective Filler Wire
4) Wet surface of BM
5) Rusted / Pitted Filler wire
6) Improper Flow Of Argon
Porosity
May 2, 2015
Remedy
1) Replace Argon Cylinder
2) Replace Leaking Torch
3) Replace Filler Wire
4) Clean & Warm BM
5) Clean Filler Wire
6) Provide Gas lens
. .
178
Undercut
Cause
1) Excess Current
2) Excess Voltage
3) Improper Torch angle
Remedy
1) Reduce the Current
2) Reduce Arc length
3) Train & Qualify the Welder
Under cut
May 2, 2015
179
Lack Of Penetration*
Cause
1) Excess Root Face
2) Inadequate Root opening
3) Over size Filler Wire
4) Wrong Direction of Arc
5) Improper bead placement
6) Improper weaving technique
Remedy
1) Reduce Root Face
2) Increase Root Opening
3) Reduce Filler Wire size
4) Train / Qualify Welder
6) Train & Qualify Welder
* Applicable to SSFPW
May 2, 2015
LOPDr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
180
Excess Penetration*
Cause
1)Excess root opening
2) Excess Current
3) Inadequate root face
4) Excess Weaving
5) Wrong Direction Of Arc
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Remedy
Reduce root gap
Reduce Current
Increase Root face
Train Welder
Train Welder
Excess Penetration Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
May 2, 2015
181
Overlap
Cause
1) Wrong Direction Of Arc
3) Excess Filler Wire
Remedy
1) Train & Qualify Welder
2) Increase Current
3) Reduce Filler Metal
Overlap
May 2, 2015
182
Suck Back*
Cause
Remedy
1) Excess weaving in root

2) Excess Current
3) Inadequate root face
4) Wrong Electrode angle
1) Reduce weaving
2) Reduce Current
3) Increase root face
* Applicable to SSFPW in 4G, 3G & 2G
Suck Back
May 2, 2015
183
Under flush
Cause
Remedy
1) Inadequate weld beads in

1) Weld some more beads
final layer
in final layer
2) Inadequate understanding on 2) Train / Qualify welder
weld reinforcement
3) Wrong selection of filler wire 3) Train / Qualify Welder
size
Under flush
May 2, 2015
184
Burn through*
Cause
1) Excess Current
2) Excess Root opening
3) Inadequate Root face
4) Improper weaving
Remedy
2) Reduce root opening
*Applicable to root pass

Burn trough
May 2, 2015
185
Tungsten Inclusion
Cause
Remedy
1) Ineffective HF
2) Improper Starting of Arc
3) Tungsten Tip Comes in
Contact With Weld
1) Rectify HF Unit
2) Never Touch Weld
With Tungsten Rod
3) Train / Qualify welder
Tungsten Inclusion
May 2, 2015
186
Stray Arcing
Cause
Remedy
1) HF Not In Operation
1) Rectify HF Unit
2) Inadequate Skill of Welder 2) Train the Welder
Arc Strikes
May 2, 2015
187
May 2, 2015
189
What Is GMAW ?
A Fusion Welding Process Semi Automatic
Arc Between Consumable Electrode &Work
Arc Generated by Electric Energy From a
Rectifier / Thyrester / Inverter
Filler Metal As Electrode Continuously fed From
Layer Wound Spool.
Filler Wire Driven to Arc By Wire Feeder through
Welding Torch
Arc & Molten Pool Shielded by Inert Gas through
Torch / Nozzle
Gas Metal Arc Welding

MIG Shielding Gas Ar / Ar + O2 / Ar + Co2
MAG Shielding Gas Co2
FCAW Shielding Gas Co2 With Flux cored
Wire
Note:- Addition of 1 5% of O2 or 5 10% of Co2 in Ar.
increases wetting action of molten metal
Power Source For MIG / MAG
Inverter- DC
Thyrister DC
Motor Generator DC
Rectifier DC
Characteristic Of GMAW Power

Source
Constant V / Linear Characteristic
V
Appx. Horizontal
Curve
V1
V2
A1
A2
Current & Polarity

DC- Electrode +Ve
Stable Arc
Smooth Metal Transfer
Relatively Low Spatter
Good Weld Bead Characteristics
DC- Electrode Ve, Seldom Used

AC- Commercially Not In use
Accessories Of GMAW
Power Source
Wire Feed Unit
Shielding Gas Cylinder, Pressure gauges/
Regulator, Flow meter (Heater For Co2 )
Welding Torch
Water Cooling System (For Water cooled Torch)
Tools For GMAW
Head Screen With DIN 13 / 14 Dark Glass

Hand Wire Brush / Grinder With Wire Wheel
Cutting Pliers
Hand Gloves
Chipping Hammer / Chisel & hammer
Spanner Set
Cylinder Key
Anti-spatter Spray
GMAW Torch
On / Off Switch
Shielding Gas
Torch Handle
Spring Conduit
Gas Cup
Arc
Nozzle Tip
Filler Wire - Electrode
Job
Equipment & Accessories

Pressure Regulator
Flow Meter
Shielding Gas
Switch
Heater
(Only For
Co2)
Solenoid
Valve
Shielding Gas
Cylinder
Copper Cup
Electrode /
Wire
Arc
Welding Torch
Wire Inside Spring Lining
Contact Tip
Argon / Co2
Shielding
Work
Torch With Cable Max. 3Mtr
Wire Feeder
Wire
Spool
Power Source
With Inductance
Types Of Wire Feeding In

GMAW
Push Type
Wire fed in to The torch by Pushing through Flexible
Conduit From A Remote Spool
Pull Type
Feed Rollers Mounted on The Torch Handle Pulls the
Wire From A Remote spool
Self Contained
Wire Feeder & The Spool On the Torch
Function Of Shielding Gas In

GMAW
Prevents Air contamination of weld Pool

Prevents Contamination During Metal Transfer
Increases fluidity of molten metal
Minimizes the spatter generation
Helps in even & uniform bead finish
Shielding Gases For GMAW

MIG:
Argon Or Helium
For SS, CS, LAS & Non-ferrous Mt & Al
MIG: Ar + 1 to 2 % O2, Wire With Add. Mn & Si
MIG: Ar + 5 to 20 % Co2 Wire With Add. Mn & Si
MAG: Co2 With Solid Wire
For CS & LAS
FCAW: Co2 With Flux Cored Wire
For CS, LAS & SS Overlay
ASME Classification For CS

GMAW Wire
SFA 5.18 : - CS Solid Wire
ER 70 S 2, ER 70 S 3
ER 70 S 6, ER 70 S 7
SFA 5.20 :- CS Flux Cored Wire
E 71 T-1, E 71 T-2 ( Co2 Gas )
E 71 T-1M, E 71 T-2M ( Ar + Co2 Mix)
GMAW CS Wire
Generally Copper Coated
Prevents Oxidation / rusting in Storage
Promotes Electric Conductivity in Arcing
Available In Solid & Flux Cored

Size in mm 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4, 3
Manganese & Silicon ( Mn 1 2 %, Si Max 1%)

Act As Deoxidizing Agents
Eliminate Porosity
Increase Wetting Of Molten Pool
Metal Transfer In MIG

Short-Circuiting / Dip Transfer
Globular Transfer
Spray Transfer
GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

ALMOST REPLACING SMAW, FASTER, INTRODUCED IN 1940S,
DCRP GENERALLY EMPLOYED, CONTINUOUS WIRE FEEDING
MODES2 OF METAL TRANSFER
1
3
4
5
SPRAY
SHORT
CIRCUIT
GLOBULAR
HIGH
VERY LOW
VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE
HIGH
MODERATE
AMPERAGE WIRE FEED
(WIRE FEED)
DROPLETSDEEP Penet.
FOR THICK
COOLEST
MODE,
LEAST
Penetration.
ARGON ST.
(FOR
NARROW)
75 % Ar +
25% CO2
May 2, 2015
BETWEEN 1&2
FOR CARBON
STEELS, 6 TO
12 MM
BURIED ARC
PULSED
ARC
UNIQUE IN
GMAW,
HIGHER WIRE
FEED
PULSING
BETWEEN
MODES
HIGH SPPED,
LOW SPATTER,
DEEP Penet.,
FOR MS AND SS
NO GUN
OSCILLATI
ON
90%Ar + 7.5%
CO2 +2.5% He
FOR
THICK TO
THIN,
DISSIMILAR
205
Metal Transfer In MIG

Up to 120A
CS Solid Wire 1.2 mm

120 to 250A
14 22V
Dip/Short Circuiting
Co2 or Ar
16 24 V
Globular
Co2 or Ar
Above230A
24 35 V
Spray
Only Ar / Ar+O2
Short-Circuiting / Dip Transfer
Wire In Contact With Molten Pool 20 to 200 times per Second

Operates in Low Amps & Volts Less Deposition
Best Suitable for Out of Position Welding
Suitable for Welding Thin Sheets
Relatively Large opening of Root Can be Welded
Less Distortion
Best Suitable for Tacking in Set up
Prone to Get Lack of Fusion in Between Beads
Globular Transfer
Metal transferred in droplets of Size grater than
wire diameter
Operates in Moderate Amps & Volts Better
Deposition
Common in Co2 Flux Cored and Solid Wire
Suitable for General purpose Welding
Spray Transfer
Metal transferred in multiples of small droplets

100 to 1000 Droplets per Second
Metal Spray Axially Directed
Electrode Tip Remains pointed
Applicable Only With Inert Gas Shielding
Not
With Co2
Operates in Higher Amps & Volts Higher Deposition
Rate
Not Suitable for Welding in Out of Position.
Suitable for Welding Deep Grooves
Pulsed Spray Welding

Power Source Provides Two different
Current LevelsBackground and Peakat
regular interval
Background & Peak are above and
below the Average Current
Best Suitable for Full Penetration Open
Root Pass Welding
Good Control on Bead Shape and Finish
Synergic Pulse GMAW

Parameters of Pulsed Current (Frequency, Amplitude,
Duration, Background Current) Related to Wire feed
Rate
One Droplet detaches with each pulse
An Electronic Control unit synchronizes wire feed
Rate with Pulse Parameters
Best Suitable for Most Critical Full Penetration Open
Root Pass Welding
Good Control on Open Root penetration, Bead Shape
and Finish
GASES
PUROPOSE1.TO SHIELD MOLTEN PUDDLE FROM CONTAMINATION
2.CREATE A SMOOTH ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
PATH FOR ELECTRONS IN ARC
SOME GASES (ARGON)MAKE SMOOTH PATH, BUT SOME RESISTS
(CO2) PATH.
STRAIGHT ARGON FOR NARROW BEADS
98% Ar+ 2 OXYGEN FOR SPRAY,
He FOR COPPER, THICK Al (WITH Ar).
75 % Ar + 25% CO2 FOR SHORT CIRCUIT.,
STRAIGHT CO2 ECONOMICAL, BUT SPATTERING.
90%Ar + 7.5% CO2 +2.5% He FOR BURIED ARC, SS.
90% Ar + 10% He FOR AUTOMATIC V, WIRE FEED SYSTEMS
May 2, 2015
A CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE USED.

212
+ POINTS OF GMAW
HIGH WELDING SPEED
NO NEED TO CHANGE ELECTRODES (ONLY WIRE SPOOL IN
GMAW)
HAZ SMALL
VERY LITTLE SMOKE AND VERY LIGHT SiO2 SLAG(CALLED
GLASS SLAG)
LEAST DISTORTION
EASE OF OPERATION (QUICK LEARNING)
GUN MANIPULATION EASIER
MOST FLEXIBLE PROCESS- VERSATILE
VERY FEW MACHINE ADJUSTMENTS FOR THICK TO THIN
CHANGE
MS, MCS, TOOL STEEL GRADES, SS, COPPER, Al, Mg WELDED
FCAW, SAW, ESW- OTER FORMS OF GMAW
May 2, 2015
213
GMAW Process Variables
Current
Voltage
Travel Speed
Stick Out / Electrode Extension
Electrode Inclination
Electrode Size
Shielding Gas & Flow Rate
Welding Position
Parameter For 1.2 FC Wire
Current 200 to 240 A

Voltage 22-24
Travel Speed 150 to 250 mm / min
Stick Out / Electrode Extension 15 to 20 mm
Electrode Inclination Back Hand Technique
Shielding Gas Co2, 12 L/Min
Parameter For 1.2 Solid Wire
Current 180 to 220 A

Voltage 20-22
Travel Speed 150 to 200 mm / min
Stick Out / Electrode Extension 10 to 20 mm
Electrode Inclination Back Hand Technique
Shielding Gas Co2 12 L/Min
Results In Change Of Parameters

Increase In Current
More deposition, More Penetration, More BM Fusion
Increase In Voltage
More Weld Bead Width, Less Penetration, Less Reinforcement, Excess
Spatter
Increase In Travel Speed
Decrease in Penetration, Decrease in Bead Width,
Decrease In Gas Flow rate
Results In porosity
Long Stick Out / Electrode Extension
Excess Weld Deposit With Less Arc intensity, Poor Bead Finish,
Shallow Penetration
Common Defects In GMAW

1. Porosity
3. Lack Of Fusion
5. Over Lap
7. Crack
9. Burn Through
11. Unstable Arc
2. Spatters
4. Under Cut
6. Slag
8. Lack Of Penetration
10. Convex Bead
12. Wire Stubbing
Porosity
Cause
Remedy
1) Less Mn & Si In Wire

2) Rusted / Unclean BM / Groove
3) Rusted wire
4) Inadequate Shielding Gas
1) Use High Mn & Si Wire

2) Clean & warm the BM
3) Replace the Wire
4) Check & Correct Flow Rate
Porosity
. .
Spatters
Cause
Remedy
1) Low Voltage
2) Inadequate Inductance
3) Rusted BM surface
4) Rusted Core wire
5) Quality Of Gas
1) Increase Voltage
2) Increase Inductance
3) Clean BM surface
4) Replace By Rust Free wire
5) Change Over To Ar + Co2
Spatters
Lack Of Fusion
Cause
Remedy
2) Inadequate Voltage
3) Wrong Polarity
4) Slow Travel Speed
5) Excessive Oxide On Joint
2) Use Right Voltage

3) Connect Ele. + Ve
4) Increase Travel speed
5) Clean Weld Joint
Lack Of Fusion
Undercut
Cause
1) Excess Voltage
2) Excess Current
3) Improper Torch angle
4) Excess Travel Speed
Under cut
Remedy
1) Reduce Voltage
2) Reduce Current
3) Train & Qualify the Welder
4) Reduce Travel Speed
Overlap
Cause
Remedy
1) Too Long Stick Out
1) Reduce Stick Out
2) Inadequate Voltage
2) Increase the Voltage
Overlap
Slag
Cause
1) Inadequate Cleaning
4) Improper bead placement
Slag
Remedy
1) Clean each bead
3) Train / Qualify welder
Crack
Cause
Remedy
1) Incorrect Wire Chemistry 1) Use Right Wire

2) Increase wire Feed
2) Too Small Weld Bead
3) Preheat Uniformly
3) Improper Preheat
4) Post heating or ISR
4) Excessive Restrain
crack
Lack Of Penetration*
Cause
1) Too Narrow Groove Angle
2) Inadequate Root opening
3) Too Low Welding current
5) Puddle Roll In Front Of Arc
6) Long Stick Out
LOP
Remedy
1) Widen The Groove
2) Increase Root Opening
3) Increase Current
5) Correct Torch Angle
6) Reduce Stick Out
Burn through*
Cause
1) Excess Current
2) Excess Root opening
3) Inadequate Root face
4) Too Low Travel Speed
5) Quality Of Gas
Burn trough
Remedy
2) Reduce root opening
4) Increase Speed
5) Use Ar + Co2
*Applicable to root pass
Convex Bead Finish

Cause
1) Low Current
2) Low Voltage
3) Low Travel Speed
4) Low Inductance
5) Too Narrow Groove
Uneven bead finish
Remedy
1) Increase Current
2) Increase Voltage
3) Increase Travel Speed
4) Increase Inductance
5) Increase Groove Width
Unstable arc
Cause
1) Improper Wire Feed
2) Improper Gas Flow
3) Twisted Torch Conduit
Remedy
1) Check Wire Feeder
2) Check Flow Meter
3) Straighten Torch Cab
Wire Stubbing
Cause
1) Too Low Voltage
2) Too High Inductance
3) Excess Slope
4) Too Long Stick Out
Remedy
1) Increase Voltage
2) Reduce Inductance
3) Adjust Slope
4) Reduce Stick Out
Important Terminology used in

Critical Welding
Preheating
Post Heating or Dehydrogenation
Intermediate Stress leaving
Inter pass Temperature
Post Weld Heat Treatment
Preheating
Heating the base metal along the weld joint to a
predetermined minimum temperature immediately
before starting the weld.
Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant coil
Heating from opposite side of welding wherever
possible
Temperature to be verified by thermo chalks prior to
starting the weld
Why Preheating?
Preheating eliminates possible cracking of weld and HAZ
Applicable to
Hardenable low alloy steels of all thickness
Carbon steels of thickness above 25 mm.
Restrained welds of all thickness
Preheating temperature vary from 75C to 200C
depending on hardenability of material, thickness & joint
restrain
How does Preheating Eliminate Crack?

Preheating promotes slow cooling of weld and
HAZ
Slow cooling softens or prevents hardening of
weld and HAZ
Soft material not prone to crack even in restrained
condition
What Is Post Heating?

Raising the pre heating temperature of the weld joint to a
predetermined temperature range (250 C to 350 C) for
a minimum period of time (3 Hrs) before the weld cools
down to room temperature.
Post heating performed when welding is completed or
terminated any time in between.
Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant coil
Heating from opposite side of welding wherever possible
Temperature verified by thermo chalks during the period
Why Post Heating?

Post heating eliminates possible delayed cracking
of weld and HAZ
Applicable to
Thicker hardenable low alloy steels
Restrained hardenable welds of all thickness
Post heating temperature and duration depends on
hardenability of material, thickness & joint
restrain
How does Post Heating Eliminate

Crack?
SMAW introduces hydrogen in weld metal
Entrapped hydrogen in weld metal induces
delayed cracks unless removed before cooling to
room temperature
Retaining the weld at a higher temperature for a
longer duration allows the hydrogen to come out
of weld
What Is Intermediate Stress Relieving?

Heat treating a subassembly in a furnace to a
predetermined cycle immediately on completion of
critical restrained weld joint / joints without
allowing the welds to go down the pre heat
temperature. Rate of heating, Soaking temperature,
Soaking time and rate of cooling depends on
material quality and thickness
Applicable to
Highly restrained air hardenable material
Why Intermediate Stress Relieving?

Restrained welds in air hardenable steel highly prone
to crack on cooling to room temperature.
Cracks due to entrapped hydrogen and built in stress
Intermediate stress relieving relieves built in stresses
and entrapped hydrogen making the joint free from
crack prone
What Is Inter- Pass Temperature?

The temperature of a previously layed weld bead
immediately before depositing the next bead over
it
Temperature to be verified by thermo chalk prior
to starting next bead
Applicable to
Stainless Steel
Carbon Steel & LAS with minimum impact
Why Inter Pass Temperature?

Control on inter pass temperature avoids over
heating, there by
Refines the weld metal with fine grains
Improves the notch toughness properties
Minimize the loss of alloying elements in
welds
Reduces the distortion
What Is Post Weld Heat Treatment?

Heat treating an assembly on completion of all
applicable welding, in an enclosed furnace with
controlled heating/cooling rate and soaking at a
specific temperature for a specific time.
Rate of heating, Soaking temperature, Soaking time
and rate of cooling depends on material quality and
thickness
Applicable to
All type of CS & LAS
Why Post Weld Heat Treatment?

Welded joints retain internal stresses within the
structure
HAZ of welds remains invariably hardened
Post Weld Heat Treatment relieves internal stresses
and softens HAZ. This reduces the cracking
tendency of the equipment in service
Weldability
The weldability of a material refers to its
ability to be welded. Many metals and
thermoplastics can be welded, but some
are easier to weld than others. It greatly
influences weld quality and is an important
factor in choosing which welding process
to use.
May 2, 2015
244
Weldability might be considered by some a

subjective term but basically it refers to a
material's capacity to be welded under the
conditions of design and fabrication and
then to perform as expected during its
service life. One of the most significant
factors determining steels weldability is its
ability to resist cracking in the weld area,
and its weldability is sometimes evaluated
on the basis of cracking sensitivity.
May 2, 2015
245
Carbon steels are the most widely used metals in industry,

construction and transportation. They are categorized by carbon
content.
Low-carbon steel contains 0.15% or less carbon. It is generally
considered the most easily welded. Mild steel has a range of 0.15 to
0.30% carbon, and its weldability is generally considered good.
Medium carbon steel has a carbon range of 0.30 to 0.50%. Its
weldability is considered fair. High-carbon steels have carbon levels
of 0.50 to 1.00%, and they are considered very difficult to weld or
even unweldable.
Although carbon content is not the only factor affecting weldability, it
is generally thought that as carbon content increases, weldability
decreases. When carbon levels reach the 0.30 to 0.35% range,
special precautions, such as preheating, controlling heat input and
postweld heat treating, are normally required. The use of lowhydrogen electrodes is often recommended for successful welding.
May 2, 2015
246
Low-alloy steels usually have low carbon levels, but other alloying
elements such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, manganese and silicon
are added to impart properties of corrosion resistance, impact toughness at
low temperatures and strength. Depending on the combination and
percentage of these alloying elements, the welds on these steels can be
susceptible to cracking.
The introduction of hydrogen into the weld metal of low-alloy steels must be
prevented. Hydrogen can come from a variety of sources, but moisture and
hydrocarbons are two of the main culprits where welding is concerned.
Moisture on the steel or in the internal or external flux of the electrode will
dissociate in the arc and release hydrogen into the weld metal. Likewise,
hydrocarbons in machining oils, solvents, lubricants and general purpose
oils will break down in the arc and transfer hydrogen into the weld metal.
Precautions should be taken to avoid the introduction of hydrogen into the
weld. Using low-hydrogen consumables, thoroughly cleaning the weld area
before welding, and making sure dry conditions prevail are ways of
preventing the transfer of hydrogen
May 2, 2015
247
Preheating and maintaining a controlled

cooling rate are two methods used to deal
with hydrogen that has entered the weld.
By controlling heat input and allowing the
weld to cool slowly, hydrogen will diffuse
from the weld as it solidifies
May 2, 2015
248
Stainless steels are widely used high-alloy steels.

Generally, these steels contain 10 to 30% chromium,
with a certain group of them also alloyed with a
significant level of nickel. Stainless steel is categorized
as austenitic, martensitic or ferritic.
Of the three types, the austenitic grades are probably
considered the most weldable. It must be kept in mind
when welding these grades that their coefficient of
expansion is greater than plain carbon steel, but heat
conducts only about one-third as fast as through plain
carbon steel. Induced heat is slow to dissipate; therefore,
attention must be paid to controlling distortion or
warping.
May 2, 2015
249
The martensitic grades exhibit high hardenability and can be prone

to cracking if care is not taken to compensate for this characteristic.
Preheating and maintaining interpass temperature are common
precautions taken against hardenability. Although they are not the
only factors to consider, preheat and interpass temperature control
are more likely to be required when carbon content is above 0. 1
0%. Slow cooling from high temperatures is the key. Postweld heat
treating may be required to attain uniform ductility in the base metal
adjacent to the weld metal.
The ferritic grades can present a problem of diminished ductility in
the weld area induced by the fusion process. Preheating should be
considered, especially when the base metal is thick and the joint is
restrained. Ferritic stainless steels are susceptible to grain growth
when heated above a certain temperature. When service conditions
require toughness in the weld area, postweld annealing is
performed. Annealing may also be required to retain the steel's
corrosion resistance in the weld area.
May 2, 2015
250
Steels
The weldability of steels is inversely proportional to a property known as the
hardenability of the steel, which measures the ease of forming martensite
during heat treatment. The hardenability of steel depends on its chemical
composition, with greater quantities of carbon and other alloying elements
resulting in a higher hardenability and thus a lower weldability. In order to be
able to judge alloys made up of many distinct materials, a measure known as
the equivalent carbon content is used to compare the relative weldabilities of
different alloys by comparing their properties to a plain carbon steel. The effect
on weldability of elements like chromium and vanadium, while not as great as
carbon, is more significant than that of copper and nickel, for example. As the
equivalent carbon content rises, the weldability of the alloy decreases. The
disadvantage to using plain carbon and low-alloy steels is their lower strength
there is a trade-off between material strength and weldability. High strength,
low-alloy steels were developed especially for welding applications during the
1970s, and these generally easy to weld materials have good strength, making
them ideal for many welding applications.
Stainless steels, because of their high chromium content, tend to behave
differently with respect to weldability than other steels. Austenitic grades of
stainless steels tend to be the most weldable, but they are especially
susceptible to distortion due to their high coefficient of thermal expansion.
Some alloys of this type are prone to cracking and reduced corrosion
resistance as well. Hot cracking is possible if the amount of ferrite in the weld
is not controlledto alleviate the problem, an electrode is used that deposits a
weld metal containing a small amount of ferrite. Other types of stainless steels,
such as ferritic and martensitic stainless steels, are not as easily welded, and
must often be preheated and welded with special electrodes.
May 2, 2015
251
Aluminum
The weldability of aluminum alloys varies significantly, depending on the chemical composition
of the alloy used. Aluminum alloys are susceptible to hot cracking, and to combat the problem,
welders increase the welding speed to lower the heat input. Preheating reduces the temperature
gradient across the weld zone and thus helps reduce hot cracking, but it can reduce the
mechanical properties of the base material and should not be used when the base material is
restrained. The design of the joint can be changed as well, and a more compatible filler alloy can
be selected to decrease the likelihood of hot cracking. Aluminum alloys should also be cleaned
prior to welding, with the goal of removing all oxides, oils, and loose particles from the surface
to be welded. This is especially important because of an aluminum weld's susceptibility to
porosity due to hydrogen and dross due to oxygen.
Residual stress
Residual stresses are stresses that remain after the original cause of the stresses has been
removed. Residual stresses occur for a variety of reasons, including inelastic deformations and
heat treatment. Heat from welding may cause localized expansion, which is taken up during
welding by either the molten metal or the placement of parts being welded. When the finished
weldment cools, some areas cool and contract more than others, leaving residual stresses.
Castings may also have large residual stresses due to uneven cooling.
While un-controlled residual stresses are undesirable, many designs rely on them. For example,
toughened glass and pre-stressed concrete depend on them to prevent brittle failure. Similarly, a
gradient in martensite formation leaves residual stress in some swords with particularly hard
edges (notably the katana), which can prevent the opening of edge cracks. In certain types of
gun barrels made with two tubes forced together, the inner tube is compressed while the outer
tube stretches, preventing cracks from opening in the rifling when the gun is fired. Parts are
often heated or dunked in liquid nitrogen to aid assembly.
Press fits are the most common intentional use of residual stress. Automotive wheel studs, for
example are pressed into holes on the wheel hub. The holes are smaller than the studs,
requiring force to drive the studs into place. The residual stresses fasten the parts together.
Nails are another example.
May 2, 2015
252
LASER BEAM WELDING(LBW)

LASER- Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
Focusing of narrow monochromatic light into extremely
concentrated beams (0.001 mm even)
Used to weld difficult to weld materials, hard to
access areas, extremely small components, In medical
field to weld detached retinas back into place
Laser Beam- coherent
Laser production- complex process.
May 2, 2015
253
Al2O3 + 0.05% Chromium

solid state RubyLaser- Neon flash tube emits light into
specially cut ruby crystals- absorbs light -electrons of
chromium atoms get stimulated Increase in stimulation ---- electrons increase from
normal(ground) orbit to an exited orbit. More energy inputenergy absorbed exceeds thermal energy- no longer to heat
energy.
Electrons drop back to intermediate orbit- emits PHOTONS
(light) called spontaneous emission
With continued emission, released photons stimulate other
exited electrons to release photons- called stimulated
emission
Causes exited electrons to emit photons of same wave
length.
May 2, 2015
254
Power intensities > 10 kw/cm2

No physical contact between work and welding
equipment
2 mirrors- coherent light reflected back and forth,
becomes dense, penetrates partially reflective mirror,
focused to the exact point
Very little loss of beam energy
Solid state, liquid, semiconductor and gas lasers used.
Solid state uses light energy to stimulate electrons
Ruby, Neodymium, YAG
Gas lasers use electrical charge to stimulate electrons
Gas lasers- higher wattage outputs. Used for thicker
sections - CO2, N2, He
May
Liquidnitrobenzene;
Gas- basedNITC
on gallium arsenide
2, 2015
255
Laser beam cutting
Along with beam, oxygen used to help

cutting. Ar, He, N, CO2 also for steel, alloys
etc.
Two ways to weld
1. Work piece rotated or moved past beam
2. Many pulses of laser (10 times/sec)used.
Narrow HAZ., speeds of 40 mm/sec to 1.5 m/sec
Cooling system to remove the heatgas and liquid cooling used
May 2, 2015
256
Klyston tubes (glass to metal sealing),

capacitor bank, triggering device, flash
tube, focusing lens, etc. in the setup.
Cathode of molybdenum, tantalum or
titanium used.
May 2, 2015
257
1987
Laser research begins a unique method for depositing complex
metal alloys (Laser Powder Fusion).
2002
From
Linde Gas in Germany, a Diode laser using process gases

and "active-gas components" is investigated to enhance the "keyholing" effects for laser welding. The process gas, Argon-CO2,
increases the welding speed and in the case of a diode laser, will
support the transition of heat conductivity welding to a deep
welding, i.e., 'key-holing'. Adding active gas changes the direction
of the metal flow within a weld pool and produces narrower, highquality weld.
CO2 Lasers are used to weld polymers. The Edison Welding
Institute is using through-transmission lasers in the 230-980 nm
range to readily form welded joints. Using silicon carbides
embedded in the surfaces of the polymer, the laser is capable of
melting
the material leaving
a near invisible
joint line.
May 2, 2015
NITC
258

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NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

LIQUID STATE PROCESSES

Partial melting and fusion of joint

Prior to joining, PREPARATION TO BE DONE.

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Standard location of elements of weld symbol

Weld all around

Other side of arrow

Arrow connecting reference

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

ASME Welding Positions

Vertical Upwards Progression

Vertical Downwards Progression

Pipe Fixed Horizontal

Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Upwards

Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Downwards

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Welding Positions For Fillet welds:Test Position

Flat (Weld flat joint at 45

Pipe Fixed Horizontal

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

ASME P Material Numbers Explained

Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA)

Submerged Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG/MAG)

Flux Cored Wire

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)

Plasma Arc Welding

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Heavy rutile coated iron powder electrodes :- A5.1 : E7024

Most Rutile consumables such as :- A5.1 : E6013

Cellulosic electrodes such as :- A5.1 : E6011

Basic coated electrodes such as : A5.1 : E7016 and E7018

High alloy austenitic stainless steel and duplex :- A5.4 : E316L-16

Any steel solid or cored wire (with flux or metal)

Aluminium and its alloys

Copper and its alloys

Hard Facing Overlay

Note:- X represents any number 0 to 9

Plain unalloyed carbon manganese steels.

Low alloy steels containing Moly and Chrome Moly

Austenitic stainless steels such as type 316.

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Types of welds and symbols

FILLET, SQUARE BUTT, SINGLE V,

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC