2.1 Body Coordination.

the adjustment of our bodys reaction towards

any stimulus around us and from the inside of
our body.
ensures that each part of the body is controlled
so that it functions harmoniously with each
other when it receives a stimulus.
there are two types of body coordination :
nervous coordination
hormonal coordination

2.2 Human Nervous System.

is divided into :
central nervous system
peripheral nervous system

the massages carried by the nervous system

are electrical signals called impulses.

Human Nervous
System

Central Nervous
System

Brain

Spinal Cord

Peripheral
Nervous System

Somatic nervous
system

Autonomic
nervous system

Cranial Nerves

Spinal Nerves

Central Nervous System.

the central nervous system is the control centre
of the body.
this system consists of :
brain
spinal cord
the brain controls all activities of the body like
walking and seeing.
the spinal cord controls the reflex actions like
pulling the hand away when the fingers touch a
hot object.
the central nervous system receives impulses
from the sensory from the sensory organs or other
parts of the body for interpretation.
after an impulses is interpreted, a new impulse is
transmitted to the muscle or gland to respond to
the stimuli.

Peripheral Nervous System.

consists of all the nerves which
connects the central nervous system
to the receptor and effector located
at other parts of the body.
the functions is to transmit
impulses from the sensory organs or
receptor through the central nervous
system to the muscle for it to
respond accordingly or to the gland
to produce the required secretion.
divided into :

somatic nervous system

controls all the voluntary actions
consists of the spinal nerve (from the spinal cord)

and the cranial nerve (from the brain)

spinal nerve controls voluntary actions like
walking, scratching, and running.
cranial nerve controls involuntary actions like
talking, smelling, and seeing.
spinal nerve connects the spinal cord with parts of
the body like the limbs, skin, and abdomen.
cranial nerve connects the brain to sensory
organs in the head and neck like the eyes, nose,
ears, tongue, and jaws.

autonomic nervous system

controls involuntary action

example ; heartbeat, and

contraction of blood vesels.

contains nerves which connect
the spinal cord to internal
organs and glands like liver,
kidneys, heart, and lungs.

Neurone.

is a basic unit of the nervous system.

the functions is to carry impulses.
cell body contains nucleus and cytoplasm.
dendron is a cytoplasm projection which
spreads out from the cell body.
dendrites is the small branches of
dendron.
axon is a long projection from the cell body
and surrounded by an insulating membrane
called myelin sheath.
myelin sheath separated by small gaps
called nodes of Ranvier.
parts of the neurone and their functions :

Neurone
Function
Part
Cell body Controls all activities of the
neurone.
Dendrite Receive impulses from other
neurone and transmits them to
cell body.
Dendron Dendrite that carries impulses
towards cell body.
Axon
Dendrite that carries impulses
out of cell body.
Myelin
*Insulator on axon that
sheath
prevents the leakage of
impulses.
*Increases the speed of

Charact
eristics

Structur
e

Sensory
Neurone

Relay
Neurone

Motor
Neurone

Position In the middle At the center At the end of

of cell of neurone
of neurone
neurone
body
Length Short
of axon

Changes

Long

Movem
ent of
impuls
e

From the
sensory
organ to
the central
nervous
system

Functio Carries
n
impulses
from
sensory
organ to

From the
sensory
neurone to
the motor
neurone in
the central
nervous
system

From the
relay
neurone
going out
from the
central
nervous
system to
the
effectors
Transmits
Transmits
impulses
impulses
from
from central
sensory
nervous
neurone to system to

2.3 Nervous Coordination.

Receptors and effectors.

Receptors is a cell in the sensory
organs which detects stimuli resulting
from the changes in the surrounding.
there are five main types of sensory
organs :
eyes
ears
nose
tongue
skin

 Effectors is an organ which

responds to the stimuli :
muscles
gland
all receptors and effectors are
connected to the nervous system by
neurones.

Reflex actions.
are automatic and fast response

of the body towards external

stimuli without the involvement
of thinking of the cerebrum.
takes place in the spinal cord.
it protects us from dangerous
situations or injuries.
the path of a reflex action is
called a reflex arc.

2.4 The Role of Proprioceptors in

Maintaining Balance and Body
Coordination.

Kinaesthetic Senses.
enable us to be aware of the
movement and position of the limbs
to maintain balance.
enable us to detect body
movements and allow us to button
our shirt even with our eyes closed.

help in maintaining balance and body

coordination.

kinaesthetic sensory receptors are

found in :
muscles
joints
ligaments
tendons

proprioceptors act as sensory

organs because of their
sensitivity towards the tension of
muscles.
the tension muscles, joints,
ligaments, or tendons, will
stimulate the proprioceptors to
trigger an impulse and transmit
through the nerves through the

 after an interpretation, an impulse

will be transmitted to parts of the

body to coordinate suitable reaction.
example of activities are :
playing the piano
tying shoelaces without looking
combing hair without looking into the

mirror

2.5 The Human Brain and

Its Complexity.

 Human Brain.
the human brain is the most
complex organ.
it is protected by a hard bone
structure called the cranium.
a big portion of neurones is
found in the brain.

*the main functions of the brain is

1. receive impulses, then
2. interpret it, then
3. transmit the impulse to the part
of the body concerned to respond.
*the human brain is divided into
three main parts :

a)

Cerebrum

the largest region of the brain.

its folded surface greatly increases

the surface area to place more

neurones.
consists of left hemisphere and
right hemisphere.
the left hemisphere receive nerve
impulses from the right side of the
body while the right side of the
body receive nerve impulses from
the left side of the body.

it is the control centre of

voluntary actions.
controls mental activities like
thinking, memory, and
emotions.
controls senses like sight,
hearing, smelling, and
touching.
controls muscle movement
like walking, writing, and

b) Cerebellum
situated at the lower part of the cerebrum
and at the back of the medulla oblongata.
has folded surface.
controls body balance.
coordinates muscle movement.
controls activities like riding a bicycle.

Voluntary Actions and

Involuntary Actions.
voluntary actions actions we are

aware of and which are done

according to our intention.
involuntary actions actions which
carry on automatically.

Effects of injury to certain

region of the brain.

an injury to a certain region

of the brain resulting from

an accident or sickness will
affect the function of a
certain part of the body.
in severe conditions, an
injury to a certain region of
the brain can cause death.

1) Injury to region controlling movement

results in certain parts of the body to be

paralysis
2) Injury to senses of smell and taste
results in the loss of senses of smell and taste
3) Injury to medulla oblongata
results in fatality
4) Injury to sense of hearing region
results in deafness
5) Injury to the sense of sight region
results in blindness
6) Injury to the cerebellum
results in the loss of body balance

2.6 Hormonal
Coordination The Body.

Hormone.
are chemical substances secreted by
endocrine glands.
are complex protein.
initiate most of the chemical reactions
which occur in the body.
produced in a small quantity.
carried by the circulation system to all
parts of the body.

Endocrine glands and their functions.

Endocrine system.
consists of endocrine glands (ductless gland) that
secrete hormone directly into the bloodstream.
the human endocrine system consists of :
pituitary gland
thyroid gland
adrenal gland
pancreas
ovary
testis

Endocrin
e gland
(location
)
Pituitary
gland (at
the base
of the
brain)

Function of
hormone
Controls the
activity of
other
endocrine
glands.

Control the
growth of
muscles and
bones.

Effect of
excessive
hormone

Effect of
deficiency
of hormone

Excessive
Stunted
growth
growth
(gigantism). (dwarfism).

Thyroid
(under the
larynx/voc
al cord at
the gland)

Controls the
body metabolic
rate.

Controls growth
and mental
development of
children.

The metabolic
rate becomes
very high.

Emotions
becomes
unstable,
quicktempered and
eyes protrudes
from the eye
socket.

The metabolic
rate becomes
very low.

Physical
growth
become
stunted.

Development
of the brain
in children is
retarded.

Causes
goitre.

Adrenal
(at the top
of both
kidneys)

Increases
heartbeat and
respiration.

Increases body

The level of
glucose and
salt in the
blood is high.

Ability to
overcome
pressure
daily lessens.

Pancrea
s
(behind
the
stomac
h)

Testis
(in the
male
reprodu
ctive
system)

To control
Shortage of Diabetes.
blood sugar glucose in
level.
the blood.

Controls the
sperm
production.

Controls the
male
secondary
sex
characterist
ics.

Extreme
masculine
characteris
tics.

Sperms
produced
are
immature.

Developm
ent of
secondary
sex
characteri
stics are

Ovary
(in the
female
reproduc
tive
system)

Controls the
menstrual
cycle.

Controls the
female
secondary
sex
characteristi
cs.

Extreme
feminine
characteristi
cs.

Infertility.

Menstrual
cycle
interrupted
.

Miscarriage
of a fetus
before
time.

Developme
nt of
secondary
sex

2.7 Coordination Between

The
Nervous
and
Comparison
betweenSystem
nervous coordination
and hormonal
coordination.
The
Endocrine
System.

both are important in performing body activities.

hormonal control differs from nervous control in

some aspects.
their similarities are :
control and coordinate body functions and
activities.
respond to a stimulus.
possess target organ

their differences are :

Nervous
system
Consists of
nerves
Goes through
the nerves
electrochemi
cally

Differences
Coordination
Way of
impulse
transmission

Endocrine
System
Consists of
ductless
glands
Goes
through
bloodstrea
m in the
form of
hormone

Very fast
A short
while
Specific
Fast and
immediate
Writing,
dancing

Speed of
impulse
transmission
Duration of
effect
Target areas
Response
Examples of
body

Slow
Long
Wide
Slow and
continuou
s
Growth,
body

 The importance of coordination between the

nervous system and the endocrine system.

Both system coordinate the appropriate body
response towards a stimulus.
Example : when fear striking during a fire, the
adrenal gland secretes hormone that changes
glycogen into glucose for the muscles usage.

The muscle will gain more energy to enable the

person to react faster like running away from
fire.

2.8 The Effects of Drug

Abuse on Body
Drugs.
Coordination
and
Health.
defined as a chemical
substance which can change
the function and physiology of
the body.
used to treat patients.

 types of drugs and their

characteristics :
depressants

example : morphine, heroin,

barbiturate
to relieve tension.
calm a persons mind.
slow down response to stimulus.

 stimulants

example : amphetamine, nicotine

increase the metabolic rate.
make a person more active.

opiates

example : morphine, cocaine

relieve the sensation of pain and
anxiety

hallucinogens

example : marijuana, LSD

causes hallucination.
causes madness and death.

 drug abuse occurs if it is used not

for medical purposes.

drug abuse can lead to addiction
and health deteoration.
types of drugs that are commonly
taken by drug addict :
opium

source flower of the poppy plant

 morphine

source brown substance processed from

opium

heroin

source white or brown powder processed

from morphine

marijuana

source leaves and dry flowers of the

Cannabis Sativa plant

 other than affecting body coordination, drug abuse can also

harm our health. It can cause the following health problems :

high blood pressure
heart problems
damage to the liver
weakened of the immune system
higher occurrence rates of cancer
mental problems
infections of contagious diseases
fatality due to overdose of drugs

2.9 Effects of Excessive

Alcohol on
Consumption
alcoholic drinks contain of
ethanol.
Body
ethanol isCoordination
produced from the fermentation
of glucose by yeast.
and
Health.
examples of alcohol : beer, whisky, vodka,
rum, and brandy.
Effects of excessive consumption of
alcoholic drinks.

2.10 Importance of
Sound and Healthy Mind.
Mind
is the ability of the brain to think and judge.
a healthy mind enables a person to make logical
judgment before his acts.
a persons mind determines his emotions and
behavior.
a person with a healthy mind will show
characteristics such as positive thinking,
independent, caring and responsible.
a person with unhealthy mind will not have self
esteem, be short-tempered, feels worry easily
and find it difficult to control his emotions.