Uniaxial Stress system

(Stress due to axial loading)

Prismatic member is subjected to an axial load P as shown in Fig. 1

Figure No. 1

The internal forces at any cross-section with in the length of he member

is determined by passing a section perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the member and set it to equilibrium as shown in Fig. 2.

P'

Figure No. 2

The internal force N at the cross-section of intrest is equal in magnitude

to the applied load P. The stress also acts normal to the cut section as
shown in Fig. 3 and is equal to

P

A

= P/A
P

Figure No. 3

Where
= Normal stress

P = Axial force

A = Area of cross-section perpendicular to longitudinal axis

However there is no shear stress. Now if we consider a section which is
inclined at an angle w.r.t. horizontal or longitudinal axis (shown in
Fig. 4).

P'

Figure No. 4

Then the force P is decomposed into components N and V. (shown in

Fig. 5)
A

A0

P'
V
Figure No. 5
The force, N leads to system of normal stresses ( n) and force V leads
to shear stresses () as shown in Fig. 6

P'

Figure No. 6
Following expressions are obtained by applying the equation of
equilibrium along n and t axis as shown in Fig. 7.
t-axis
n-axis
N

P
n
i
s
P
n-axis

s
o
c
P

Figure No. 7

v
t-axis

Fn 0
P cos N

(1)

N N . A

( 2)

as
A
A'
cos

( See Fig . 8)

A'

Figure No. 8

So substituting value of A' in (2).

N N.

cos

(3)

Equating (1) & (3)

A
P cos N .
cos
P
N . cos 2
A
Let x

(4)

P
A

Therefore

N x cos 2

(5)

The above formulae may also be expressed in terms of double angles.

1 cos 2
cos
2
2

N x (1 cos 2 )

(6)

(7)

(8)

Ft 0
P sin V
A
V . A' .
cos

A
V
cos

equation (7) & (8)

A
P sin
cos
P
. sin cos
A

(9)

x sin cos

(10)

(11)

2 sin cos sin 2

x (sin 2 )

Graphical representation of these is shown in figure (9).

,45
4

,90
2

3
,135
4

,180

5
,225
4

3
,270
2

7
,315
4

Figure No. 9

2 ,360

45

90

135

180

225

270

315

360

It would prove helpful in visualizing more readily the variation in

normal and shearing stress with respect to each other and with angle .
The graph shows that normal stresses are maximum at 0o and 180o and
minimum at 90o and 270o. It can be noted that where normal stresses are
maximum or minimum the shear stress is always zero. These maximum
or minimum normal stresses are called Principal stresses and the Plane
on which they act (Plane of zero shear stress) are known as Principal
Planes.
Also it can be noted that maximum values of shear stress occurs when
is 45o or 135o and also that

 max

1
max
2

Therefore maximum stresses are given by the following expression.

max

max

2A

The maximum and minimum values of and can also be determined

by using calculus i.e. by differentiating them with and equating it
zero.

0,
d

d n
0,
d
P (1 cos 2 )
n
A
2

P
Let x
A

1 cos 2
n x

P sin 2

2A
2

d n
x sin 2 0
d

when 0

d
x cos 2 0
d

n max x
when 90

n min 0

sin 2

45o
max min

Importance of Tension Test

These observations lead us to consider more carefully the question of
the strength of a bar in simple tension. If the bar is made of a material
that if much weaker in shear than it is in cohesion, it may happen that
failure will take place due to relative slipping between two parts of the
bar along a 45- plane where the shear stress is a maximum, rather than
due to direct rupture across a normal section where the normal stress is
a maximum. For example, a short wood post loaded in axial
compression, as shown in Fig. 2.2a, may actually fail by shearing along
a jagged plane inclined roughly by 45 to the axis of the post. In such
case, we may still specify the value of P/A at which this failure occurs

as the ultimate strength of the wood in compression, even though the

failure is not a true compression failure of the material.
Similarly, during a tensile test of a flat bar of low-carbon steel
with polished surfaces, it is possible to observe a very interesting
phenomenon. At a certain value of the tensile stress = P/A I visible
slip bands approximately inclined by 45 to the axis of the bar will
appear on the flat sides of the specimen as shown in Fig. 2.2b. These
lines, called Lueders' lines, indicate that the material is failing in shear,
even though the bar is being loaded in simple tension. This relative
sliding along 45-planes causes the specimen to elongate axially, and
after unloading it will not return to its original length. Such apparent
stretching of the bar due to this slip phenomenon is called plastic

yielding. Again, the axial tensile stress y.p. = P/A at which this occurs
may be designated as the yield stress in tension, even though the failure
is not a true tension failure of the material. These matters will be
discussed further in the next article.
Laboratory experiments indicate that both shearing and normal stress
under axial loading are important since a brittle material loaded in
tension will fail in tension on transverse plane whereas a ductile
material loaded in tension will fail in shear on the 45o plane.
Equations (2.18) and (2.19) illustrate that the normal and tangen
tial components are each less than the stress of Fig. 2.12b. However,
there are physical situations when one of the components acting on the
inclined surface might produce a more critical stress

situation. The following example is conceptually elementary and yet

illustrates a typical engineering analysis problem.
A short wooden compression member is shown in Fig. 2.13. The
photograph of the actual test specimen (Fig. 2.13e) illustrates the failure
mechanism. The failure surface is inclined approximately 58 degrees
from the vertical, and a shear-type failure is readily observed as the top
section appears to slide relative to the lower section. The material is
weaker in shear than in compression and the failure will be explained
using the foregoing analysis. Shear stress and normal stress are com
puted using Eqs. (2.18) and (2.19). Substituting the actual values of ,
b, and h gives

o 2

P (sin 58 )
2

287
.
64
P
N
/
m
(50) 2

P(sin 58 o )(cos 58 o )
2
T

179
.
74
P
N
/
m
2
(50)
The normal and shear stresses are shown idealized as they act on the
cut section in Fig. 2.13d. The shear stress that is producing failure is
shown in Figs. 2.13e and f.
For = 90 degrees, a failure surface normal to the axis of the
post, the stress would be

P
2

400
P
N
/
m
(50) 2

But T = 179.74 and N = 287.64 and the failure is a shear failure;

hence, the failure stress is 45 percent of the axial normal stress. This
result is due to actual material behavior that is an integral part of the
study of mechanics of materials. The wood test specimen represents a
material that is less resistant to failure in shear than in compression and
the grain structure of wood lends itself to the failure mechanism of Fig.
2.13e. The calculation of stress is independent of material behavior.
However, if stress is to be related to deformation, the mechanical
properties of the material must be considered.
Equations (2.18) and (2.19) illustrate the earlier statement that stress is
not a vector quantity. The force vectors of Fig. 2.12d have components
described by a single trigonometric function.

FIGURE 2.13Failure of an actual wood test specimen.

Sign convention
Formulas (2.1), derived for the case of axial tension, can be used also
for axial compression, simply by changing the sign of P/A. We then
obtain negative values for both the normal stress n and the shear
stress. The complete state of stress on a thin element between two
parallel oblique sections for axial tension and axial compression are
compared in Fig. 2.3. The directions of these stresses associated with
axial tension (Fig. 2.3a) will be considered as positive; those associated
with axial compression (Fig. 2.3b), as negative. Thus n is positive
when it is a tensile stress and negative when it is a compressive stress.
By reference to Fig. 2.3, the rule for

sign of shear stress will be as follows: The shear stress on any face
of the element will be considered positive when it has a clockwise
moment with respect to a center inside the element (Fig. 2.3a). If the
moment is counterclockwise with respect to a center inside the element,
the shear stress is negative. Stated in a different way, the shear stress on
any surface of a body will be considered to be of positive sign if it
points in a direction corresponding to clockwise rotation about a center
inside the body, otherwise of negative sign. Several examples of both
positive and negative shear stress are shown in Fig. 2.4. These sign
conventions, while arbitrary, must nonetheless be carefully observed to
avoid confusion.
At this point, we shall adopt a sign convention for these

stresses: If the stress points in a direction that corresponds to a

clockwise rotation, the stress is positive; a negative shear stress is
associated with counterclockwise rotation. As previously mentioned,
the normal stresses are considered positive if there is a tensile load
acting on that face; it is negative for a compressive load. Referring to
Figure 1-20, stress xy is, according to our convention, positive, yx is
negative, 1 and 2 are positive.

Returning to the case of a bar in axial tension, let us consider now the
stresses on an oblique section p' q' at right angles to the section pq, as
shown in Fig. 2.5. To obtain the stresses 'n and ' on this section, we
need

only to replace q, by 90 + in eqs. (2.1). Then remembering that sin

(90 + ) = cos q" while cos(90 + ) = - sin this gives

P
P 2
2
o
n ' cos (90 ) sin ,
A
A

1P
1P

o
'
sin(180 2 )
sin 2 .
2A
2A

These stresses on the plane p' q' act as shown in Fig. 2.5b.
The complete set of stresses given by eqs. (2.1) and (2.1') are called
complementary stresses because they occur on mutually perpendicular
planes. Comparing the two sets of formulas, we observe that

P
n 'n ,
A
' .
Thus the sum of normal stresses n and 'n on any two mutually
perpendicular sections of a bar in axial tension is constant and equal to
P / A, the normal stress on the normal section mn. Also, complementary
shear stresses are always equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
One observes that when of Fig. 1-7 is greater than 90, the
sign of the shearing stress in Eq. b changes. The magnitude of the
shearing stress for any angle , however, is the same as that for 90 + .
The sign change merely indicates that the shear force vector changes

sense, being directed toward the top of the element instead of toward
the bottom as in Fig. 1-6. Normal and shearing stresses on planes
having aspects 1 and 90 + 1 are shown in Fig. 1-8.

Alternative
The equality of complementary shear stresses such as and ' on the
faces of a rectangular element (Fig. 2.6) also can be established from
the equilibrium conditions of the element itself, as follows: Let dz
denote the thickness of the element normal to the plane of the paper and
ds, ds', the lengths of its edges. Then the areas on which and ' act
will be, respectively, dsdz and ds'dz. Multiplying the shear stresses by
the areas on which they act, we obtain two counteracting couples, the
moments of which must balance each other. Thus
(dsdz) ds' = '(ds'dz) ds,

from which = ', where ' has already been represented as negative in
Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6