Drilling E2

University of Salford

DRILLING FLUID

BY

G.C.ENYI
School of Computing, Science and Engineering
University of Salford, Manchester
Drilling E2 Section 1 Drilling Fluid

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INTRODUCTION
Drilling fluid is a fluid used to aid the
drilling of boreholes. It is used while
drilling oil and gas wells.
The three main types of drilling fluids
are water-based muds, oil-based muds
and gaseous drilling fluid in which a
wide range of gases can be used.
Liquid drilling fluid is called drilling
mud.
Drilling E2 Section 1 Drilling Fluid

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COMPOSITION OF A DRILLING FLUID

A drilling fluid consists of:
The Base Fluid
water fresh or saline
oil diesel or crude
mineral oil or other synthetic fluids
The Dispersed Solids
Colloidal particles which are suspended
particles of various sizes.
The Dissolved Solids
Usually salts and their effects on colloids
are
important

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TYPES OF DRILLING FLUID

Drilling fluid may be classified generally as Air, Gas or Mud.
Depending on the liquid base, drilling mud are two types:
Water base mud
Oil base mud
(A) Water Base Muds ( Water base muds are most commonly used)
1)Fresh water muds
2)Chemical treated muds
3)Calcium treated muds
4)Salt water treated muds
5)Oil-emulsion muds
(B) Oil Base Muds
6)Oil base muds
7)Invert emulsion muds
Drilling E2 Section 1 Drilling Fluid

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TYPES OF DRILLING FLUID

Liquids

Gases

Gas-Liquid
Mixtures

WaterBase
Muds

Oil-Base
Muds

Foam
(Mostly
Gas)

Aerated
Water
(Mostly
Water)

Drilling E2 Section 1 Drilling Fluid

Air

Natural
Gas

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TYPES OF DRILLING FLUID

(C) Gas Drilling Fluids
1) Air or natural gas
2) Aerated muds
(D) Foam
The criteria for selection of a particular drilling fluid with
specific design properties are the minimum cost in
conjunction with the following factors:
3) Type of formation to be penetrated
4) Formation pore pressure
5) Formation evaluation methods to be used
6) Formation temperature and permeability
7) Ecological considerations
8) Corrosion
Drilling E2 Section 1 Drilling Fluid

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TYPES OF DRILLING FLUID

WATER BASED MUD (WBM)
The water base mud system begins with water, then clay and
other chemical additives are mixed with the water to create a
homogenous blend depending on the viscosity. The most
common of the clay used is BENTONITE.
OIL BASED MUD (OBM)
This is mud where the base fluid is a petroleum product such as
diesel fuel. OBMs are used for many reasons such as increased
lubrication and greater cleaning abilities with less viscosity. They
withstand greater heat without breaking down.
SYNTHETIC BASED FLUID (SBM)
This is mud where the base fluid is a synthetic oil. Often used on
offshore rigs. It has the properties of OBM but the toxicity of the
fluid fumes are much less than OBM.
Drilling E2 Section 1 Drilling Fluid

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OIL BASED MUDS

Oil muds find application under the
following conditions:
1. Drilling under deep condition and
hot formation (t > 375oF)
2. Drilling salt formation or active shale
formation containing H2S or CO2.
3. Drilling formations easily damaged
by
water based mud.
4) Corrosion control.

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OIL BASED MUDS

5) Directional drilling or slim holes
where
high torque is a problem.
6) Preventing stuck pipe.
7) Drilling weak formations of
subnormal
pore pressures.

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OIL BASED MUDS

ADVANTAGES
1. Good
rheological
properties
at
temperature as high as 500oF
2. More inhibitive than the water base
muds
3. Effective against all types of corrosion
4. Superior lubricating characteristics
5. Permits mud densities as low as 7.5
Ib/gal.

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OIL BASED MUDS

DISADVANTAGES
1. Higher initial cost
2. Requires more stringent pollution control
procedures
3. Slower drilling rate
4. Reduced effectiveness of some logging
tools
5. Remedial treatment for lost circulation is
more difficult
6. Detection of gas kicks is more difficult

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FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING
FLUIDS

The main functions of a drilling fluid can be summarised as follows:

1)Removal of cuttings from the borehole
2)
Cooling and lubrication of the bit and drill string
3)
Control of subsurface pressure
4)
Wall building
5)
Minimise formation damage
6)
Seal permeable formations
7)
Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit
8)
Ensure adequate formation evaluation
9)
Facilitate cementing and completion
10)
Suspend and release cuttings

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DRILLING FLUIDS RELATED PROBLEMS

Major hole problems which are directly or
indirectly related to drilling mud are:
1) Lost circulation
2) Corrosion
3) Shale problems
Some of these problems are:
Pipe sticking
Increased mud volume and
treatment
Ineffective hole cleaning
Difficult logging

continuous

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DRILLING FLUIDS RELATED PROBLEMS

4) High borehole temperature

Excessive temperature increase
may lead to the following problems
a)Reduction in penetration rate
b)Lost circulation
c)Logging and downhole testing
difficulties
d)Expensive
workover
operations

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DRILLING FLUIDS ADDITIVES

Many substances are added to drilling fluids to
perform specialized functions. The most
common functions are:
Alkalinity and pH control
Bactericides
Filtrate and Calcium Reducers
Corrosion Inhibitors
Foaming Agents and deformer
Emulsifiers
Flocculants
Surfactants and Lubricants
Weighting and Pipe freeing agents

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PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUIDS

All drilling fluids have essentially the
same properties, only the magnitude
varies. These properties include:
Density
Viscosity
Gel strength
Filter cake
Water loss
Electrical resistance

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DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
The test equipment needed to perform the diagnostic tests
include:
1) A mud balance for determining drilling fluid density.
2) A Marsh funnel for checking drilling fluid consistency.
3) A rotational viscometer for determining gel strength and
apparent viscosity at various shear rates
4) A filter press for determining mud filtration rate and mud cake
characteristics.
5) A high-pressure, high temperature filter press for determining
mud filtration rate and mud cake characteristics at elevated
temperature and pressure.
6) A pH meter for determining hydrogen ion concentration.
7) A sand screen for determining sand content
8) A mud still for determining solids, oil and water contents
9) A titration apparatus for chemical analysis

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DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
The density of fresh water is 8.33
Ibm/gal.
The Marsh Funnel
The test consists essentially of filling
the funnel with a mud sample and
then measuring the time required for
1 quart of the sample to flow from the
initially full funnel into the mud cup.

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DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
The Rotational Viscometer
This provides a more meaningful measurement of the
rheological characteristics (deformation & flow of matter:
non-Newtonian fluid) of the mud than the marsh funnel.

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DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
The mud is sheared at a constant rate between an
inner bob and an outer rotating sleeve. The
dimensions of the bob and the rotor are chosen so
that the dial reading is equal to the apparent
Newtonian viscosity (cp) at a rotor speed of 300
rpm.
At other rotor speeds, the apparent viscosity a is
given by:

Where N = dial reading in degrees and N is the

rotor speed in rpm

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DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
The viscometer also can be used to determine
rheological parameters that describe non-Newtonian
fluid behaviour.
Two parameters are required to characterise fluids
that follow the Bingham plastic model. These
parameters are called the plastic viscosity (p) and
the yield point (y) of the fluid.
p = 600 300
600 = dial reading with viscometer operating at 600
300 = dial reading with viscometer operating at 300

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DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
The yield point is computed using:
y = 300 - p

(Ibf/100 ft2)

Gel strength (Ibf/100 ft2) is obtained by

noting the maximum dial deflection
when the rotational viscometer is turned
at a low rotor speed (usually 3 rpm)
after the mud has remained static for
some period of time.

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WORKED EXAMPLE
A mud sample in a rotational
viscometer equipped with a standard
torsion spring gives a dial reading of
46 when operated at 600 rpm and a
dial reading of 28 when operated at
300 rpm. Compute the apparent
viscosity of the mud at each rotor
speed. Also compute the plastic
viscosity and yield point.

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SOLUTION
For the 300 rpm dial reading:
a = 300(28)/300 = 28 cp
For the 600 rpm dial reading:
a = 300(46)/600 = 23 cp
Note: The apparent viscosity does not remain constant but
decreases as the rotor speed is increased. This type
of non- Newtonian behaviour is shown by all
drilling
muds.

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SOLUTION
The plastic
computed
as:

viscosity

of

the

mud

can

be

p = 600 300 = 46 28 = 18 cp
The yield point can be computed as:
y = 300 - p = 28 18 = 10 Ibf/100
ft2

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PILOT TESTS
Pilot testing involves evaluation of
mixtures of given concentrations and
densities. It is assumed in mixing
calculations that the resulting mixture is
ideal (ie the total volume is equal to the
sum of component volumes):
Vt = V 1 + V 2 + . . . + V n
Also
Vi = mi/i

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PILOT TESTS
The mixture density can be computed from a knowledge of the
total mass and total volume added to the mixture. Thus, the
mixture density is given by:

The units of measure most commonly used when treating the

active drilling fluid system are pounds for weight and barrels for
volume.
The units of measure most commonly used for pilot tests are
grams for weight and cubic centimeters for volume.
Converting from Ibm/bbl to g/cm3 gives:
1.0 Ibm/1 bbl x 454g/Ibm x 1bbl/42 gal x 1 gal/3785 mL
= 1g/350 mL
Thus adding 1g of material to 350 mL of fluid is equivalent to

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WORKED EXAMPLE
Compute the volume and density of a mud composed
of 25 Ibm of bentonite clay, 60 Ibm of API barite and
1 bbl of fresh water.

SOLUTION
The densities of clay and barite are 910 Ibm/bbl and
1470 Ibm/bbl respectively. Density of water is 8.33
lbm/gal = 350 lbm/bbl) The total volume is given by:
Vt = V1 + V2 + V3 = 1.0 + 25/910 + 60/1470
= 1.0683 bbl
The mixture density is:
= (350 + 25 + 60)/1.0683 = 407 Ibm/bbl
= 9.7 Ibm/gal

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DENSITY CONTROL ADDITIVES

For ideal mixing the volume of mud V1 and
weight material VB must sum to the desired
new volume V2.
V2 = V1 + VB = V1 + mB/B
Likewise, the total mass of mud and weight
material must sum to the desired densityvolume product:
2V 2 = 1V 1 + m B

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DENSITY CONTROL ADDITIVES

Solving
these
simultaneous
equations for V1 and mB yields:
and
When the final volume of mud is not
limited, the final can be calculated
from the initial volume as:

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DENSITY CONTROL ADDITIVES

The reduction in solids concentration by dilution is much
less expensive before the conversion is made because the
mud discarded during dilution does not contain any API
barite.
When mud dilution comes before (precedes) weighting
operations, the proper volume of old mud V1, dilution water
Vw and mass of weight material mB, that should be
combined to obtain a desired volume of new mud V 2 can be
calculated by:
V2 = V1 + Vw + mB/B
Similarly, a mass balance on mixing procedure requires:
2V2 = 1V1 + wVw + mB

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DENSITY CONTROL ADDITIVES

A third
volume
can be
fraction

equation can be obtained by performing a

balance on the low-specific-gravity solids. This
expressed in terms of the present volume
fc1 and the desired new volume fraction f c2:
fc2 V2 = fc1 V1

Solving these three equations simultaneously yields:

V1 = V2 (fc2 / fc1)

and

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WORKED EXAMPLE
It is desired to increase the density of 200bbl of 11 Ibm/gal
mud to 11.5 Ibm/gal using API barite. The final volume is
not limited. Compute the weight of API barite required.
SOLUTION
The density of API barite is 35.0 Ibm/gal.

= 204.255 bbl
The weight of API barite required is:
mB = (V2 V1)B = (204.255 200)(42)(35)
= 6,255 Ibm

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EXAMPLE
After cementing casing in the well, it is
desirable to increase the density of the 9.5
Ibm/gal mud to 14 Ibm/gal before resuming
drilling operations. It also is desired to
reduce the volume fraction of low-specificgravity solids from 0.05 to 0.03 by dilution
with water. The present mud volume is
1000 bbl but a final mud volume of 800 bbl
is considered adequate. Compute the
amount of original mud that should be
discarded and the amount of water and API
barite that should be added.

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MUD RHEOLOGY
NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Viscosity is defined as the resistance to flow
and in the field, it is routinely measured with
marsh funnel. Meaningful results are obtained
with rotational viscometers.
Gel Strength is a measure of the gelling
properties or thixotropic property of the mud
under static conditions.

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MUD RHEOLOGY
Consider a fluid contained between two large parallel
plates of area A, which are separated by a small
distance L. The upper plate which is initially at rest is
set in motion in the x-direction at a constant velocity
v.
After sufficient time has passed for steady motion to
be achieved, a constant force F is required to keep
the upper plate moving at constant velocity.
The magnitude of
experimentally to be:

the

force

was

found

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MUD RHEOLOGY
The term F/A is called the shear stress exerted on the
fluid. Shear stress is defined as:

The area of the plate A is the area in contact with the

fluid. The velocity gradient v/L is an expression of the
shear rate.

Hence the Newtonian model states that the shear stress

is directly proportional to the shear rate. The constant of
proportionality is known as the viscosity of the fluid.

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MUD RHEOLOGY

The linear relationship between the shear stress and shear

rate is valid only for laminar flow. This is true at relatively
low rate of shear.
At high rates of shear, the flow pattern changes from
laminar to turbulent in which the fluid particles are in
chaotic and unpredictable movement.

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MUD RHEOLOGY
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Most drilling fluids are too complex to be
characterised by a single value for viscosity.
The apparent viscosity measured depends
upon the shear rate at which the
measurement is made and the prior shear
rate history of the fluid.
Fluids which do not exhibit a direct
proportionality between the shear stress and
shear rate are called Non-Newtonian fluids.

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MUD RHEOLOGY
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Non-Newtonian fluids that are shear rate dependent are
called Pseudo-plastics if the apparent viscosity decreases
with increasing shear rate.
They are called Dilatants if the apparent viscosity increases
with increasing shear rate. Generally drilling fluids are
pseudo-plastics.

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MUD RHEOLOGY
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Two models are used to approximate the behaviour of
non-Newtonian fluids:
1)
2)

Bingham model
Power Law model

A Bingham plastic will not flow until the applied shear

stress exceeds a certain minimum value (y) known as
the yield point. After the yield point has been exceeded,
changes in the shear stress are proportional to changes
in the shear rate and the constant of proportionality is
called the plastic viscosity (p).

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MUD RHEOLOGY
The Bingham Plastic Model is defined by:
= p + y

( > y )

The Power Law Model is defined by:

= K||n-1
The power law model requires two parameters for fluid
characterisation. The parameter K is called the consistency
index of the fluid. The unit of K depends on the value of n.
It has units of g/cm.s2-n
The parameter n is called the power law exponent or the
flow-behaviour index.

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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
An upper plate of 20-cm2 area is spaced 1cm above a
stationary plate. Compute the viscosity (cp) of a fluid between
the plates if a force of 100 dyne is required to move the upper
plate at a constant velocity of 10 cm/s. (1 dyne.s/cm^2 = 100
cp)
SOLUTION
The shear stress is given by:
= 100 dyne/20 cm2 = 5 dyne/cm2.
The shear rate is given by:
= 10 cm/s 1 cm = 10 s-1
= / = 5/10
= 0.5 dyne.s-1/cm2

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WORKED EXAMPLE 2
An upper plate of 20-cm 2 area is spaced
1 cm above a stationary plate. Compute
the yield point and plastic viscosity of a
fluid between the plates if a force of 200
dynes is required to cause any movement
of the upper plate and a force of 400
dynes is required to move the upper plate
at a constant velocity of 10 cm/s.

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SOLUTION 2
The yield point y is given as:
= p + y with = 0
= y = 200 dyne/20 cm2
= 10 dyne/cm2.
In Oilfield units:

y = 10/4.79 = 2.09 Ibf/100 ft2.

The plastic viscosity p is given as:

= p + y

with = 10cm/s 1cm = 10 s-1.

p = [(400/20) 10] 10
= 1.0 dyne-s/cm2.
= 100 cp

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WORKED EXAMPLE 3
An upper plate of 20 cm2 is placed 1cm
above a stationary plate. Compute the
consistency index and flow-behaviour
index if a force of 50 dyne is required to
move the upper plate at a constant
velocity of 4 cm/s and a force of 100 dyne
is required to move the upper plate at a
constant velocity of 10 cm/s.