EBGE 2061:

Process Control and

Instrumentation

Lecture #2
Instrumentation System Elements

Outline Topics
Introduction
Sensor selection
Displacement Sensors
Speed sensors
Fluid Pressure sensors
Temperature sensor
Fluid flow and liquid level sensor
Signal processing
Data presentation elements
Smart Systems

Introduction
To be useful, systems must interact with their
environment. To do this they use sensors and
actuators
Almost any physical property of a material that
changes in response to some excitation can be
used to produce a sensor
widely used sensors include those that are:

resistive
inductive
capacitive
piezoelectric
photoresistive
elastic
thermal.

Sensor Selection
Range
maximum and minimum values that can be measured

Resolution or discrimination
smallest discernible change in the measured value

Error
difference between the measured and actual values
random errors
systematic errors

Accuracy, inaccuracy, uncertainty

accuracy is a measure of the maximum expected
error

Sensor Selection
Maintenance
Sensors require occasional testing and
replacement of selected components that can
wear.
Engineers must know the maintenance
requirements so that they can provide
adequate spare parts and personnel time.
Naturally, the maintenance costs must be
included in the economic analysis of a design.

Sensor Selection
Safety
The sensor and transmitteroften require electrical
power.Since the sensor is located at the process
equipment, the environment could contain
flammable gases, which could explode when a spark
occurs.

Cost
Engineers must always consider cost when making
design and operations decisions.Sensors involve
costs and when selected properly, provide
benefits.These must be quantified and a
profitability analysis performed.

Displacement Sensors
1) Potentiometers
resistive potentiometers are one of the most
widely used forms of position sensor
can be angular or linear
consists of a length of resistive material with a
sliding contact onto the resistive track
when used as a position transducer a potential
is placed across the two end terminals, the
voltage on the sliding contact is then
proportional to its position
an inexpensive and easy to use sensor

Displacement Sensors
Potentiometers Construction

The output signal (Vout) from the potentiometer is taken from

the centre wiper connection as it moves along the resistive
track, and is proportional to the angular position of the shaft.

Displacement Sensors
2) Inductive proximity sensors
Also known as Eddy
current sensor.
Coil inductance is
greatly affected by
the presence of
ferromagnetic
materials
Here the proximity of
a ferromagnetic plate
is determined by
measuring the

Displacement Sensors
Inductive Proximity Sensor how it
works?

An inductive proximity sensor has four main components; The

oscillator which produces the electromagnetic field, the coil which
generates the magnetic field, the detection circuit which detects any
change in the field when an object enters it and the output circuit
which produces the output signal.

Displacement Sensors
Inductive Proximity
Sensor application
As well as industrial applications,
inductive proximity sensors are
also used to control the changing
of traffic lights at junctions and
cross roads. Rectangular
inductive loops of wire are buried
into the tarmac road surface and
when a car or other road vehicle
passes over the loop, the metallic
body of the vehicle changes the
loops inductance and activates
the sensor thereby alerting the
traffic lights controller that there
is a vehicle waiting.

Displacement Sensors
3) Switches
simplest form of digital displacement
sensor
many forms: lever or push-rod operated
micro-switches; float switches; pressure
switches; etc.

A limit switch

A float switch

Displacement Sensors
4) Opto-switches
consist of a light source and a light
sensor within a single unit
2 common forms are the reflective and
slotted types

A reflective optoswitch

A slotted opto-switch

Displacement Sensors
5) Absolute position encoders
a pattern of light and dark strips is printed on
to a strip and is detected by a sensor that
moves along it
the pattern takes the form of a series of lines as
shown below
it is arranged so that the combination is unique at
each point
sensor is an array of photodiodes

Displacement Sensors
Absolute position encoders
One main advantage of an absolute encoder is its nonvolatile memory which retains the exact position of the
encoder without the need to return to a "home" position if
the power fails

Pressure Sensors
1) Strain gauge
stretching in one direction increases the
resistance of the device, while
stretching in the other direction has little
effect
can be bonded to a surface to measure
strain
used withinDirection
load cells
and pressure
of sensitivity
sensors
A strain gauge

Pressure Sensors
2) Capacitive
Sensors
Work based on
measurement of
capacitance from two
parallel plates.
C = A/d , A = area of
plates d = distance
between.
This implies that the
response of a capacitive
sensor is inherently nonlinear. Worsened by

Pressure Sensors
3) Piezoresistive Sensors
Work based on the piezoresistive properties of
silicon and other materials.
Piezoresistivity is a response to stress.
Some piezoresistive materials are Si, Ge, metals.
In semiconductors, piezoresistivity is caused by 2
factors: geometry deformation and resistivity
changes.

Temperature sensors
There are two temperature sensing methods:

Contact
Requires direct physical contact with the
object or media that is being sensed.
It can be used with solids, liquids or gases.

Non Contact
Does not require any physical contact with
the object or media that is being sensed.
Used to sense the temperature of solids
and liquids.

Temperature sensors
Contact
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTDs)
Full System Thermometers
Bimetallic Thermometers
Thermistors
Thermostat

Non Contact
Pyrometer

Temperature sensors
1) Resistive thermometers
typical devices use platinum wire (such
a device is called a platinum resistance
thermometers or PRT)
linear but has poor sensitivity

Temperature sensors
2) Thermistors
use materials with a high thermal coefficient of
resistance
sensitive but highly non-linear
Easy to use and adaptable.

A disc and threaded thermistor

Temperature sensors
3) PN junctions
a semiconductor device with the
properties of a diode (we will
consider semiconductors and
diodes later)
inexpensive, linear and easy to
use
limited temperature range
(perhaps
-50C to 150 C) due to nature of
semiconductor material

pn-junction sensor

Temperature sensors
4) Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a junction formed from two
dissimilar metals.
It is a pair of junctions. (One at a reference and
the other junction at the temperature to be
measured.)
Inexpensive, Rugged, Reliable
Can be used over a wide temperature range

Temperature sensors
5) Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
Sensors used to measure temperature by correlating
the resistance of the RTD element with temperature.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled
wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core.
The most accurate temperature sensors.
Excellent stability and repeatability.
Immune to electrical noise

Temperature sensors
Contact
Advantages: Relatively rugged
Economical
Wide application range
Relatively accurate
Simple to apply

Non Contact
Advantages: Ideal for measuring
objects in motion
Does not interfere with
process
Faster response
(milliseconds compared to
seconds for contact
sensing)
Can sense temperature of
irregular shaped objects
Will not deface or
contaminate

Temperature sensors
Contact
Disadvantages: Requires physical
contact, may damage or
contaminate.
Can cause wear on
rotary components.
Slow to respond relative
to non-contact sensing
Acts as a heatsink,
alters readings on small
objects

Non Contact
Disadvantages: Will not measure gas
temperatures
Emissivity variations
Field-of-view (spot size)
restrictions
Ambient temperature
restrictions
Indicated temperature
affected by environmental
conditions (dust, smoke,
etc.)

Flow sensors
Important variable in plant operation
Measured primarily for determining the amount
of fluid flowing
Flow measured as a quantity or rate of flow in
terms of weight or flow.
Most popular type is the head type flow meter.
Produce a pressure difference when fluid flow is
maintained through them
Difference Pressure proportional to square of flow
rate
Uses Bernoullis theorem

Flow sensors
orifice

Pitot
tube

Head
type
flow
meter
Flow
nozzle

venturi

Flow sensors
1) Orifice meters
) used for large & medium
pipes
) Orifice plate- inserted to
pipe to create a partial
restriction to flow
) Pressure before orifice plate
rises and pressure after it
reduces but velocity
increases.
) Simple but poor accuracy,

Flow sensors
Orifice plates are arranged vertically in the
pipeline.

Flow sensors
Position where velocity is maximum &
static pressure is min is known as vena
contracta.

Flow sensors
Calculation of the flow:

q
v

Volumetric flow rate (m/s)

Coefficient of discharge
(dimensionless)

Area of orifice (m)

Gravitational constant (9.8 m/s)

Differential pressure (m)

Flow sensors
2) Venturi meter
Converging conical section at up stream
Cylindrical throat- provides a panel for
measurement- pressure decreased- flow rate
steady
Diverging recovery outlet
Venturi meters are most commonly used for
liquids, especially water.

Flow sensors

Flow sensors

In the Venturi meter velocity is increased and

the pressure decreased in the upstream cone.
The pressure drop from points F to I can be
used to measure the rate of flow through the
meter.

Flow sensors
Calculation of the flow:

Q = is the flow rate through the pipe and through the

meter (m3/s )
Cd= is the discharge coefficient, which is dimensionless
Ao= is the constricted area perpendicular to flow (m2)
P1= is the undisturbed upstream pressure in the pipe
(N/m2)
P2= is the pressure in the pipe at the constricted area,
Ao(N/m2)

Flow sensors
3) Flow nozzle
Principle- Bernoullis theorem
Simple
Used in higher velocities, difficult to
maintain, costly
Used in gases

Flow sensors

Flow sensors
4) Pitot tube
Cylindrical probe
inserted into fluid
Velocity head
converted into
impact pressure
Differences between
static pressure &
impact pressureproportional to flow

Flow sensors

Easy to install
No pressure loss
Sensitive to up stream disturbance
Not used for sticky and dirty fluids

Level Measurement
Two methods of Level Measurement
Direct Measurement
Direct Measurement uses methods such as
visual Inspection
displacement of float
Tuning fork etc
Inferential measurement
Inferential measurement uses methods such as
pressure head
time of flight etc
attenuation of radiation
Change in Capacitance of material
Photoelectric

Level Measurement (Direct)

1) Level Gauge
This is a visual method of
measuring the level of fluid
in a vessel.
A graduated pipe is
connected to a vessel. As
the level of the fluid inside
the vessel increases the
level inside the tube will
increase.
A visual inspection of the
tube ill provide an
indication of the level inside
the vessel.

Vess
el

Level Measurement (Direct)

2) Reflex / transparent level
indicator
Reflex level indicator

Transparent

level

Level Measurement (Direct)

3) Magnetic floating
detector
Containing a magnet rises
and falls with the liquid
As the float moves, this
information is transferred to
the indication rail mounted
on the outside of the tube.
The white and red indication
flaps represent air and liquid
level respectively.

Level Measurement (Direct)

Each of the colored flap
contains a small magnet
which rotates through 1800
when passed by the bar
magnet within the float.
The bar magnet design does
not lose magnet field strength
even at temperatures of
4500C guaranteeing
continuous operation in the
most extreme applications.

Level Measurement (Direct)

4) Float type detectors
Most Float type detectors use the principle
of loss in weight of a buoyant float to
indicate the level of the fluid.
The float is selected such that it is lighter
than the fluid. As the level of the fluid rises
the float rises. This is sensed by the
electronics assembly to indicate the level.

Level Measurement (Direct)

Advantages
Simple & proven
techniques
Unlimited tank height
Better accuracy
(depending on the float
type)
Low capital,
maintenance cost
Disadvantages
Subject to wear,
corrosion, mechanical
failure
Getting stuck due to

Level Measurement (Direct)

5) Vibrating Element
The oscillations of a member (paddle) are
damped when it is immersed in the liquid.
The attenuation of oscillations indicates that the
liquid has reached the measured level.
The oscillations are stimulated and sensed by
electronic means.

Level Measurement (Indirect)

1) Differential
Pressure
Level can be inferred
from
the
differential
pressure (head) of the
fluid inside the tank.

Level Measurement (Indirect)

Options on Differential pressure based level
measurement :
Purge type instruments
The nozzle on the vessel is continuously purged
by a medium acceptable to process & back
pressure is measured at HP & LP tapping.
Used for fluid with suspended particles or having
crystallizing nature
Chemical seal type instruments
The nozzle on the vessel is flange type instead of
threaded type.
Used when medium can chock the tapping
Cost of instrument is three times the

Level Measurement (Indirect)

Advantages
economical and easy to install
Online checking & maintenance possible

Disadvantages

Solid level measurement not possible

Only clean fluid can be measured
Density variation gives error
Choking of impulse tubes possible

Level Measurement (Indirect)

2) Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic instruments
determine level by
measuring the length of
time it takes for a sound
pulse to return to a
piezoelectric transducer
after bouncing off the
process material.

Level Measurement (Indirect)

The sensor uses high-performance
Piezoelectric crystals to generate
short ultrasonic pulses in the form
of sound waves.
d
These pulses are directed toward a
L
specific target from where they
get reflected back to the
transducer which acts as
transmitter/receiver.
The transit time taken to receive
the reflected pulse is measured by
d = velocity of sound time travel
the electronics.
level , x = L ~ d

Level Measurement (Indirect)

3) Radar
Radar-based devices
beam microwaves at
the process material's
surface.
A portion of that energy
is reflected back and
detected by the sensor.
Time for the signal's
return determines the
level.

Level Measurement (Indirect)

Radar provides a non contact sensor that
is virtually unaffected by changes in
process temperature, pressure or the gas
and vapor composition within a vessel.
In addition, the measurement accuracy is
unaffected by changes in density,
conductivity and dielectric constant of the
product or by the air movement above the
product.

Level Measurement (Indirect)

4) Capacitive level
sensor
Radio frequency (RF), based
on capacitance or admittance,
can handle wide range of
process conditions.
Level transmitters of this type
sense the change of electrical
impedance that occurs with the
change of level on the sensor.
RF devices ignore material
buildup on sensor and work with

Signal Conditioning
Signal from detector/sensing stage has to
be modified (conditioned) in order to make
it more usable.
This signals is then to be use in later stage
of system that may consist of processing
elements.
Proper selection of signal conditioning
circuit can improve the quality and system
performance.

Types of Signal
Conditioning
Can be classified into two types:
Analog Signal Conditioning the conditioned
output is still an analog representation
Digital Signal Conditioning the conditioned
output is in digital format

Analog signal conditioning :

Passive circuits using passive elements like

resistor, capacitor, inductor

Active Circuit using IC like operational amplifier.

Functions of Signal
Conditioners
There are many possible functions of signal
conditioning stage:

Amplification

Attenuation

Filtering

Differentiation

Integration

Linearization

Converting a resistance to voltage signal

Converting a current signal to voltage signal

Etc

Analog Signal Conditioning

Bridge Circuit
Wheatstone Bridge - the most common
bridge circuit used.
In signal conditioning it is used to convert
impedance variations into voltage
variations.
R1

R2

Vs
R3

RX

Voltage
detector

Analog Signal Conditioning

Bridge Circuit
Assume the detector impedance is infinite
open circuit.
VR4
Va
R1 R4
VR3
Vb
R2 R3

VR3 R2 R1 R4
V
( R1 R3 ).( R2 R4 )

For null detector ,the resistors value must

R3R
2 R1 R 4
satisfy this
equation:

Analog signal Conditioning

Filtering
Filter is a circuit/device that passes
electrical signals at certain frequencies
while attenuates or rejects others.
Consist at least one pass band - range of
frequencies that are allowed to pass
through the filter
Cut-off frequencies, fc - is the frequencies
for which the output is attenuated by 3 dB
or Vout / Vin = 0.707

Signal Filtering

Types of Filter
Both of passive and active filters can be classified
as follows:
a) Low Pass Filter: deliver low frequencies and
eliminate high frequencies
b) High Pass Filter: send on high frequencies and
reject low frequencies
c) Band Pass Filter: pass some particular range of
frequencies, discard other frequencies outside
that band
d) Band Stop Filter: stop a range of frequencies
and pass all other frequencies

Types of Filter
Categories
of electrical
filters:
(a) lowpass;
(b)
highpass;
(c)
bandpass;
(d)
bandstop.

Low Pass Filter

Blocks high frequencies and passes low

frequencies
In terms of resistor
1 and capacitor, cut-off
frequency,
f c fcis given by:

2 RC

Gain is also given by;

ALPF

1
1 f fc

Vi

Vo

Low Pass Filter

signals above cut-off frequency, fc are simply
rejected.
the Phase Angle () of the output signal lags
behind that of the input and at the -3dB cut-off
frequency (fc) it is -45o out of phase

High Pass Filter

to offer easy passage of a high-frequency signal
and difficult passage to a low-frequency signal.
In terms of resistor and capacitor, cut-off
frequency, fc1is given by:

fc

2 RC

Gain is given by;

AHPF

f fc
2
1 f fc

High Pass Filter

The signal is attenuated or damped at low
frequencies
The phase angle () of the output signal leads
that of the input and is equal to +45o at
frequency c.

Band Pass Filter

Passes all signals lying within a band
between a lower frequency limit and an
upper-frequency limit
Rejects all other frequencies that are
outside the specified band
combining the properties of low-pass and
high-pass into a single filter

Band Pass Filter

Lower cut-off freq:

f clower

1
2 R2C 2

Upper cut-off freq:

f cupper

2 R1C1

In terms of gain and frequency;

High pass

Vout
gainV:
in
V

Low pass gain:Vout

in

( f / fcl )

1
2 2

[1 ( f / f c l ) ]
1
1
2 2

[1 ( f / f c h ) ]

Band Stop Filter

Frequencies within a certain bandwidth are
rejected and
frequencies outside the bandwidth are passed.
At the very low and high frequencies the gain is
almost unity, but between the two there is a
frequency where the gain (Vout/Vin) become zero.
The frequency is known as Notch Frequency, fo.

1
fo
2 RC

Band Stop Filter

can be made out of a low-pass and a high-pass filter
the two filter sections in parallel with each other
commonly known as a Twin-T filter

The low-pass filter section is comprised of R1, R2, and C1 in

a T configuration.
The high-pass filter section is comprised of C 2, C3, and R3 in
a T configuration as well

Digital Signal Conditioning

Memory

Input Stage
INPUTS: All
sensors produce
are a voltage
signal of some
type
Some Inputs are
conditioned
before going to
the
microprocessor.
Amplification

Input Conditioning
Microprocessor
can only process
some types of
signals
Must amplify
some signals
Must convert
analog signals to
digital signals

Processing Operation
Digital signal
compared to lookup
tables
Information is sent
to microprocessor
Microprocessor
decides what to do
Issues a command
to output actuator

Output Stage
Microprocessor
issues commands in
the form of voltages
Can display
information on a
Scanner or Digital
dash
Can control
hydraulic, vacuum
or electrical
components.

Data Presentation
1)Local display
) A sensor can display the measurement at the point
where the sensor is located.
) This information can be used by the people when
monitoring or working on the equipment.
) A measurement that has only local display involves
the lowest cost, because the cost of transmission and
interfacing to a digital system are not required.
) Note that no history of these measurements is
available unless people record the values periodically.

Data Presentation
2) Local panel display
Some equipment is operated from a local panel,
where sensors associated with a unit are collected.
This enables a person to start up, shutdown and
maintain the unit locally.
This must be provided for units that require manual
actions at the process during normal operation
(loading feed materials, cleaning filters, etc.).
Usually, the values displayed at a local panel are
also displayed at a centralized control room.

Data Presentation
3) Centralized control room
Many processes are operated from a centralized
control room that can be located a significant
distance (e.g., hundreds of meters) from the
process.
The measurement must be converted to a signal
(usually electronic) for transmission and be
converted to a digital number when interfaced
with the control system.
A centralized control system facilitates the
analysis and control of the integrated plant.

Data Presentation
4) Remote monitoring
In a few cases, processes can be operated
without a human operator at the location.
In these situations, the measurements are
transmitted by radio frequency signals to a
centralized location where a person can
monitor the behaviour of many plants.
Typical examples are remote oil production
sites and small, safe chemical plants, such as
air separation units.

Smart System
Digital conversion and transmission- The
sensor can transmit additional information,
including diagnostics and corrected estimates of
a variable based on multiple sensors, e.g., orifice
pressures and density.All values can be
transmitted digitally, which allows many sensor
values to be sent by the same cabling, which
reduces the cost of an individual cable for each
measurement, as required with analog
transmission.
Diagnostics- The sensor can provide
sophisticated diagnostics of its performance and
warn when a measurement might be unreliable.
Configuration- The range of a sensor can be