TRANSDUCERS

TRANSDUCERS
A transducer is a device that convert one form of
energy to other. It converts the measurand to a
usable electrical signal. In other word it is a
device that is capable of converting the physical
quantity into a proportional electrical quantity
such as voltage or current.The physical quantity
may be temperature, pressure etc.
The electrical signal is then used for either
displaying or controlling that physical quantity.
Transducer contains two parts that are closely
related to each other i.e. the sensing element
and transduction element. The sensing element is
called as the sensor. It is device producing
measurable response to change in physical
conditions. The transduction element convert the
sensor output to suitable electrical form.

CLASSIFICATION OF
TRANSDUCERS
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
Active transducers:
These transducers do not need any
external source of power for their
operation. Therefore they are also called
as self generating type transducers.
The active transducer are self generating
devices which operate under the energy
conversion principle. As the output of
active transducers we get an equivalent
electrical output signal e.g. temperature
or strain to electric potential, without

CLASSIFICATION OF
TRANSDUCERS
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
Passive transducers:
These transducers need external source of
power for their operation. So they are
not self generating type transducers.
A DC power supply or an audio frequency
generator is used as an external power
source. These transducers produce the
output signal in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in
response to the quantity to be measured.

CLASSIFICATION OF
TRANSDUCERS

ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS

Analog transducer: The output of these
transducers is in the analog form that means it
is a continues function of time. e.g. LVDT,
thermocouple etc.
Digital transducer: The output of these
transducers is in the digital form that means
in time. TRANSDUCERS
e.g.
PRIMARY discrete
AND SECONDARY
Primary Transducer: There are transducers which
converts the physical quantity to be measured
into a mechanical signal known as primary
transducer.
Secondary Transducer: There are transducers
which convert the mechanical signal into a

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TRANSDUCTION PRINCIPLE

Capacitive transduction: In these transducers ,the
measurand is converted to a change in the
capacitance.
Electromagnetic transduction: In these
transducers, the measurand is converted to a
voltage induced in a conductor by change in the
magnetic flux.
Inductive induction: In it, the measurand is
converted into a change in the self inductance of
a single coil.
Piezoelectric induction: In it, the measurand is
converted into a change in electrostatic charge or
voltage v generated by crystals when mechanically
stressed.
Photovoltaic transduction: In it, the measurand is
converted into a voltage generated when the
junction between two metals is illuminated.
Photoconductive transduction: In it, the measurand

CLASSIFICATION OF
TRANSDUCERS

LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transducer
LVDT is an inductive transducer, which converts
the physical motion into change in inductance. It
is a passive differential inductive transducer.

Cutaway view of an LVDT. Current is driven through

the primary coil at A, causing an induction current
to be generated through the secondary coils at B.

LVDT
CONSTRUCTION

CONSTRUCTION OF LVDT

The LVDT has three solenoidal coils placed endto-end around a tube. The centre coil is the
primary, and the other two coils are the top and
bottom secondaries. A cylindrical core, attached
to the object whose position is to be measured,
slides along the axis of the tube.

LVDT
CONSTRUCTION

An alternating current drives the primary.

It causes a voltage to be induced in each secondary
proportional to the length of the core linking to the
secondary. The two secondary windings are connected in series
opposition. Hence voltage induced into these windings are of
opposite polarities.
The core provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux
linking the coils.

LVDT
WORKING

Similarly,
If the core
core
if
is
core
displaced
is displaced
its
towards
null
secondary-2,
position
towards
then
Assume
is
exactly
at from
the centre.
Then
flux linked
to
secondary-1,
output
then flux
voltage
linked
be
secondary-1
positive.
increases
both the secondaries
willwill
betoequal,
but with
oppositeand
Thus
flux
thelinked
magnitude
to secondary-2
of output
signal
decreases.
is made
Therefore
to varyinduced
linearly
polarities.
The
output
voltage
of LVDT
is therefore
zero.
with the
voltage
mechanical
is negative.
This position
is
called
asdisplacement.
the null position.

THERMOCOUPLE
Thermocouple is an active type
temperature sensitive device
which operates under the energy
conversion principle.
The operation of thermocouples
is based on a phenomenon known
as seeback effect. It states
that a current flows in a closed
circuit made of two dissimilar
metals if the junctions of the
two metals are kept at different
temperatures. Due to this
current flow, an EMF
proportional to the temperature
difference is produced.

THERMOCOUPLE

THERMOCOUPLE

BASIC THERMOCOUPLE CIRCUIT

In measurement, one of the two junctions can be

maintained at a known temperature (reference or cold
junction) while other junction is called as the hot
or sensing junction. When temperature difference
exists between the sensing junction and the reference
junction, and EMF us produced causing current in the
circuit. The millivolt meter is used to measure the

THERMOCOUPLE

EMF vs. TEMPERATURE CHARACTERSTICS FOR

THERMOCOUPLE
ALLOYS.
LIMITATIONS:

The temperature characteristics are slightly non linear.

Thermally generated EMF is small, so amplification is
required.
APPLICATIONS:
In measurement of surface temperature.
For the applications which need wide temperature range

STRAIN GAUGE
Strain gauge is a passive resistance transducer
which converts mechanical elongation and
compression into a resistance change. This change
in resistance takes place due to variation in
length and cross sectional area of the gauge
wire, when an external force acts on it.
The working of strain gauge is based on the fact
that when stress is applied on the metal
conductor, its resistance changes due to change
in length and cross sectional area of the
conductor. Resistance of conductor is also
changed due to change in resistivity of the
conductor. This property is called the piezoresistive effect.

STRAIN GAUGE
In bonded wire
strain
gauge GAUGE
WIRE
STRAIN
fine resistance wire of
diameter of 25 microns or less
is wound back and forth in a
grid with as many loops as
possible, laid side by side.
The grid is cemented to the
base which may be a thin sheet
of paper or bakelite or a
sheet of teflon.
Two connecting leads are
soldered or welded to the ends
of the grid. The strain gauge
is fixed with a special
adhesive to the structure

STRAIN GAUGE
METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
The bonded metal foil strain gauges
are formed by rolling out a foil of
resistive material and then cutting
away parts of the foil by
photoetching process to create the
required grid pattern. The metal
foil strain gauges use similar
materials to wire strain gauges. The
metals and alloys used for foils are
constantan (Ni and Cu), nickel,
platinum.
The bonded metal foil gauges have a
greater heat dissipation capacity in
comparison to the wire wound gauges.
This is because they have a large
surface area for the same volume.

TYPICAL FOIL
STRAIN GAUGE

STRAIN GAUGE
SEMI CONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE

Semiconductor gauges are used in applications where a high gauge

factor is desired. A high gauge factor means relatively higher
change in resistance that can be measured with good accuracy.
The resistance of semiconductor gauges changes as strain is
applied to it. The semiconductor gauges depend for their action
upon the piezo-resistive effect i.e. change in value of
resistance due to change in resistivity.
Silicon and germanium are used as resistive materials for
semiconductor gauges.
These gauges are produced by using semiconductor wafer having a
thickness of 0.05 mm and bonding them on desired insulating
substrates like Teflon. Gold leads are used for making contacts.

PIEZO ELECTRIC
It is an active transducer. Some
TRANSDUCER
materials possess
a property
called piezoelectricity. These
materials will generate an
electrostatic charge or voltage
when mechanical stresses are
applied across them. Materials
possessing this property are
called as piezoelectric
materials. For example, quartz,
different ceramic materials.
Natural quartz is the most
suitable device as it has a
higher resistivity and less
sensitive to temperature and
moreover exhibits good linearity
over a wide range of stress

PIEZOELECTRIC
DISK GENERATES A
VOLTAGE WHEN
DEFORMED

PIEZO ELECTRIC
Advantages:
TRANSDUCER
do not require external source.

They
Their frequency response is good.
Small in size and light in weight.
Disadvantages:
The output is affected by temp.
variations.
Problem of leakage of charge.

Applications:
For the measurement of force and
pressure.
Used in high frequency accelerometers.

PHOTO ELECTRIC
Also known as TRANSDUCER
optoelectronic transducers which
comes under the category Passive transducers .
They usually works when a material is
illuminated. They are classified as:
1. Photo emissive
2. Photoconductive
3. Photovoltaic
Photo emissive transducers: These operate on the
principle that radiation falling on a cathode causes
electrons to be emitted from the cathode surface.
The commonly used material is Caesium antimony.
These are also called phototubes. Phototubes are of
3 types:
Vacuum
Gas filled
Photo Multiplier

PHOTO ELECTRIC
TRANSDUCER
Photoconductive
Transducers: In it, the measurand
is converted into a change in the resistance of
semiconductor material by the change in the light
incident on the material. These are also known as
photo cells. When it is kept in dark, then its
resistance is called dark resistance. It is very
high. It can be photo diode . The photoconductive
material used is cadmium sulphide, cadmium
selenite or cadmium sulphonide.
They are also called as LDR(Light dependent
Resistor) as the incident light varies the
resistance)
Another example of it is phototransistor.

PHOTO ELECTRIC
TRANSDUCER

Photovoltaic Transducer: In it the measurand is

converted into a voltage generated when the
junction between two metals is illuminated. It
is also called as Solar cell. Materials used for
it are Silicon and Selenium. It converts solar
energy into radiant power. Gold doped germanium
cells work as photovoltaic devices in the
infrared region. It is used in spacecraft,