Ultrasonic Testing of materials :

Bats use ultrasonic echo location to find its flying path, search and
catch insects. Bats operate in the frequency range of 50 150 KHZ.

Ultrasonic testing is the process of applying ultrasonic

sound to a specimen and determining its soundness,
thickness or some physical property.
Sound is a vibration that transmits energy by a series of
small material displacements. Vibrations above human

ultrasonic inspection
Ultrasonic testing is the process of applying ultrasonic
sound to a specimen and determining its soundness,
thickness or some physical property.
Sound is a vibration that transmits energy by a series of

Ultrasonic Testing :

High frequency [ 0.5 to 15 MHz ] ultrasound waves [ mechanical

vibrations ] are introduced into a material to detect changes in material
properties. A piezoelectric transducer is excited with a pulsating voltage
to generate ultrasound waves in the test material. The sound is
reflected back from something--either the back side of the part or from a
flaw--depending on what is in the material. When it reflects back, the
signals are detected, displayed and interpreted to determine the
thickness of the metal or the flaw thats inside the metal.

Common uses of Ultrasonic

testing :
Thickness measurements
Corrosion mapping
Metal cracking
Bonding
Plates
Pipes
Forged products
Cast products
Rolled products
Welded joints
Concrete

Advantages :
Provides immediate information
Good penetration power. Allowing the inspection of thick
sections
Accurate determination of imperfection position and estimation
of imperfection severity.
Fast response time, Permits high speed automatic testing.
One surface access. Access is required to only one surface of
the product being inspected.
Very small imperfections can be detected
Highly sensitive to planar defects like Crack and Lack of Fusion

Disadvantages :
Provides indirect indication, Discontinuities can not be identified directly.
Requires surface preparation.
Requires full scanning of entire
test area.
Requires a coupling
medium which makes recording difficulties.
Conventional techniques does not provide permanent record
of test signals. Less sensitive to smaller flaw like porosity and slag
fragments. Discontinuities must be intercepted perpendicularly.
Test reliability depends on operators skill and attention.

Ultrasound waves are high frequency mechanical vibrations traveling

through a medium, which may be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. These waves
will travel through a given medium at a specific speed or velocity, in a
predictable direction, and when they encounter a boundary with a different
medium they will be reflected or transmitted according to simple rules. This
is the principle of physics that underlies ultrasonic flaw detection.

Ultrasonic testing :
The reflections from discontinuities and the back wall are detected and
displayed as information of the test object.

Display

Frequency : All sound waves oscillate at a specific frequency, or number of

vibrations or cycles per second, which we experience as pitch in the
familiar range of audible sound. Human hearing extends to a maximum
frequency of about 20,000 cycles per second [ 20 KHz ], while the majority
of ultrasonic flaw detection applications utilize frequencies between
500,000 and 10,000,000 cycles per second [ 500 KHz to 10 MHz ]. At
frequencies in the megahertz range, sound energy does not travel
efficiently through air or other gasses, but it travels freely through most
liquids and common engineering materials.
Velocity : The speed of a sound wave varies depending on the medium
through which it is traveling, affected by the medium's density and elastic
properties. Different types of sound waves will travel at different velocities.

Wavelength:
Any type of wave will have an associated wavelength, which is the
distance between any two corresponding points in the wave cycle as it
travels through a medium. Wavelength is related to frequency and velocity
by the simple equation
= c/f
where
= wavelength
c = sound velocity
f = frequency
Wavelength is a limiting factor that controls the amount of information that
can be derived from the behavior of a wave. In ultrasonic flaw detection, the
generally accepted lower limit of detection for a small flaw is one-half
wavelength. Anything smaller than that will be undetectable. In ultrasonic
thickness testing, the theoretical minimum measurable thickness is one
wavelength.

Ultrasound parameters
Wavelength : one complete oscillation of a vibrating particle.
Frequency : No of complete oscillation per second.
Velocity : The distance, sound energy travels in one second.

Display

Ultrasound behavior :
Ultrasound gets Scattered and diffracted by very small reflectors [ larger
than wavelength ] with a resultant loss of energy. Scattering is random
reflection of sound energy from grain boundaries and similar microstructure.
Diffraction at ends of a larger reflectors which may be detected and used
for flaw measurements.

Steel grains under very high magnifications.

Sound is scattered by these grain boundaries when their size approaches
the wavelength. Sound is scattered with a resultant loss of energy.

Graphite noodles in cast iron scatter ultrasound which produce noise and
loss of penetration.

Coarse grained material disperses ultrasound by random reflection from

grain boundaries. This produces noise on the baseline, serious loss of
back reflection and indistinguishable signal from smaller flaws.

Attenuation of ultrasound :
The distance that a wave of a given frequency and energy level will travel
depends on the material through which it is traveling. As a general rule,
materials that are hard and homogeneous will transmit sound waves more
efficiently than those that are soft and heterogeneous or granular. Three
factors govern the distance a sound wave will travel in a given medium:
beam spreading, attenuation, and scattering. As the beam travels, the
leading edge becomes wider, the energy associated with the wave is spread
over a larger area, and eventually the energy dissipates. Attenuation is
energy loss associated with sound transmission through a medium,
essentially the degree to which energy is absorbed as the wave front moves
forward. As frequency decreases, beam spreading increases but the effects
of attenuation and scattering are reduced. For a given application,
transducer frequency should be selected to optimize these variables. The
amplitude of ultrasonic wave decreases as the propagating distance
increases. The amplitude of ultrasonic wave which has propagated the
distance of x is represented as

V(x)=V0 e -ax
where, a is the attenuation coefficient of a material.

Materials that cannot be tested ultrasonically include anything that can not
transmit ultrasound or scatter energy. Coarse grained material such as
copper, cast iron, stainless steel disperses ultrasound by random
reflection from grain boundaries.

A Scan testing [ time / distance amplitude display ] :

A transducer generates ultrasound in the test part, which travels in a straight
line through the base metal and gets reflected from the end of the metal and
from locations where there is a change in the base metal located in the sound
travel path. A CRT screen displays the signals for entry and the locations of
reflectors. The screen is interpreted for the length of the test part and the
locations of discontinuities.

For complete examination, the probe is moved over the entire test surface.
The back wall signal is monitored along with any new signal appearing
between entry signal and the back wall. Any significant drop in back wall
signal height or appearance of a new signal are to be interpreted for the
possible presence of a discontinuity along the sound travel path.

Display

Ultrasonic display :
Sound generated by the probe is
reflected from the back wall, the CRT
screen displays the Initial and the
Back wall echoes. The distance of
the back wall echo in a calibrated
scale is the thickness of the test
object.

Display

Ultrasonic display :
Display shows a Flaw echo
between the initial and back wall
echoes. Distance of the flaw can
be read, if the screen is calibrated
Flaw reduces back wall amplitude.

Display

Ultrasonic display :
Flaw being closer to the probe, the
flaw signal shifts to the left of the
screen. Back wall signal remains at
the same location because the
thickness is unchanged, with further
reduction in signal amplitude.

In a flawless object, energy reflected from the back wall is received by the
probe if the front and the back surface are parallel and the back wall echo is
produced. The red zone is the focus of the ultrasound beam where sound
pressure is maximum.

Display

A flaw reflects some of the energy thereby reducing the energy reflected by
the back wall, with a resultant loss of amplitude of the back wall signal.

Display

The CRT Screen divisions where test signals are displayed :

The CRT screen is graduated in 50 small equal divisions, divided into
10 major groups. By positioning known back wall echo signals at appropriate
scale divisions, different test ranges are produced.

CRT Display :
Natural test signals are radio frequency type and have a serrated look. The
signals are rectified to smooth looking positive going signal for easy
interpretation.

CRT Display :
Natural serrated signals are rectified to smooth looking positive going signal.

1
2
Reading a CRT display :
Test range : 100 mm [ 1 small division for a 100 mm range is,
100 / 50 divisions = 2 mm ]
1. Initial pulse [ scale zero ]
2. Flaw signal at 78 mm [ 39 X 2 ]
3. Back wall signal at 100 mm [ 50 X 2 ]

Sound Waves :
are propagation of mechanical energy through a medium. Sound
waves in solids can exist in various modes of propagation that are
defined by the type of motion involved. Longitudinal waves and shear
waves are the most common modes employed in ultrasonic flaw
detection. Surface waves and Lamb waves are also used depending
on applications.

Longitudinal [ or compressional ] Waves :

Longitudinal wave is produced when mechanical force acts perpendicular to
the test surface. Longitudinal wave propagates by pushing the particles
toward the path of propagation. Wave propagates through compression and
rarefaction of the particles. Particle displacement is parallel to the direction
of the wave propagation. In solids, the particles do not move away from its
original position, but oscillate around its rest position. Longitudinal wave
has highest velocity among all waves and lower attenuation. All ultrasound
waves for material testing are generated in the longitudinal mode. Straight
beam probe generates these waves.

A longitudinal or compressional wave is characterized by particle motion in

the same direction as wave propagation, as from a piston source. Audible
sound exists as longitudinal waves only.

Display

Expansion of the compressed zone

produces more compression zones. A
series of compression and rarefaction
transfer energy from one end to the
other end of the object.

Display

Particle movements in longitudinal waves

Display

When the mechanical force acts at an

angle to the test surface, shear wave also
known as transverse waves are produced
if the material is solid in nature. A shear
wave is characterized by particle motion
perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. The particles move up and
down, with respect to its rest position.

Display

In a shear wave, the particles move up and down, pulling other particles with
it. This is possible only in solids, where the particles are locked by inter
atomic forces.
Shear waves can not be generated in liquids and gasses.

Particle movements in shear waves.

Display

Wave length of ultrasound depends on the frequency and velocity of sound,

in the medium through which it is traveling.
Velocity = frequency X wavelength

Reflection at an interface of two materials :

When ultrasound hits an interface of two mediums, part of the incident
energy is reflected back into the incident medium. The remaining energy
will be transmitted through.

Reflection at an interface of
two materials :
When ultrasound hits an
interface of two mediums, part of
the incident energy is reflected
back into the incident medium.
The remaining energy will be
transmitted through.

Reflection at an interface of two materials :

The amount of energy reflected, or reflection
coefficient, is related to the relative acoustic impedance of the two materials.
Acoustic impedance is the resistance to sound propagation which is a
material property. It is defined as density multiplied by the speed of sound in
a given material. For any two materials, the reflection coefficient as a
percentage of incident energy / pressure may be calculated through the
formula
Reflection % = [ (Z1 Z2) / (Z1 + Z2) ] 2 X 100.
Where,
Z1 = acoustic impedance of first material
Z2 = acoustic impedance of second material
For the metal / air interface, the reflection coefficient approaches 100%.
Virtually all of the sound energy is reflected from a crack or other
discontinuity in the path of the wave. This is the fundamental principle that
makes ultrasonic flaw detection possible.

Couplants: is a material [ usually liquid ]

that facilitates the transmission of
ultrasonic energy from the transducer into
the test specimen. Couplant is generally
necessary because the acoustic
impedance mismatch between transducer
front face, air and the test specimen, is
large and, therefore, nearly all of the
energy is reflected and very little is
transmitted into the test material. The
couplant displaces the air and makes it
possible to get more sound energy into the
test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic
signal can be obtained. In contact
ultrasonic testing a thin film of oil, glycerin
or water is generally used between the
transducer and the test surface. In
immersion testing, water column or water
bath conducts ultrasound into the test
material.

Reflection of ultrasound :
ultrasound is highly directional, and at test
frequencies used for flaw detection, are well defined. A sound beam that
hits an interface at perpendicular incidence will reflect straight back. When
the sound beam hits the interface at an angle, will reflect forward at the
same angle. The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.

Refraction :
Sound energy that is transmitted from one material to
another, bends in direction. A beam that is traveling
straight will continue in a straight direction, but a beam
that strikes an interface at an angle will be bent
according to Snells Law :
Sin 1
V1
-------- = ----Sin 2
V2
Where,
Sin 1 = incident angle in first material
Sin 2 = refracted angle in second material
V1 = sound velocity in first material
V2 = sound velocity in second material

Reflection and Refraction of ultrasound :

When ultrasound travels from one medium to another medium at an angle to
the interface, both the reflected and refracted beams split into longitudinal and
shear wave modes.

Reflection and Refraction of ultrasound :

When sound travels from water to steel, 88% of the incident energy reflects
back into water. The remaining 12% energy enters steel.
Reflection % = [ (Z1 Z2) / (Z1 + Z2) ] 2 X 100.
Only 1% of the generated energy finally returns to the probe.

Normal Incidence :
For perpendicular incidence, the direction and wave mode in the second
medium is the same as the first medium.
Angular Incidence :
the refracted beam splits into longitudinal and shear waves. The angle of
the longitudinal component is larger than the shear waves.

First Critical angle :

For a certain angle of incidence, the longitudinal wave is refracted along
the surface and produces creeping waves which travel immediately below
the surface.
Second Critical angle :
with further increase in incident angle, at double the first critical angle, the
shear wave is also refracted along the surface and converted to surface
waves traveling on the surface. .

Surface Waves in water :

The floating object moves up and down at its own place, and
the energy propagates in the form of waves.

Surface Waves in water :

The particles movement is
elliptical. The waves
propagate, perpendicular to
the particle vibration.

Surface Waves :
Surface waves are known as Rayleigh waves which travel on
and just beneath the surface of a material, penetrating up to a depth of
approximately one wavelength. Below one wavelength, the energy drops
to only 4% and there is no possibility to detect any defect at this depth.

Particle movement in surface waves

Display

Testing for surface cracks with a surface wave probe.

As the name suggests, surface waves [ or Rayleigh waves ] travel along
the surface of components, penetrating to a depth in the order of one
ultrasonic wavelength. These waves propagate along the surface, follows
smooth curve, travel with low attenuation, and is reflected from defects at
or very near the surface. Surface waves are sensitive to surface condition
and will be attenuated by excess couplant left on the surface. Since
energy is concentrated in the surface region, small blemishes on the
surface can give rise to spurious indications. The inspection surface
requires excess couplant or dirt to be removed.

Display

When a surface wave probe is used in pulse-echo mode, it is suitable for

the detection of surface breaking flaws, provided that the beam direction is
normal to the plane of the flaw, sound will be reflected back to the
transducer. Surface wave probes can also be used in transmitter -receiver
mode, such that when the signal detected by the receiver is weakened or
totally disappears, it signifies that a surface breaking flaw lies between
them.

Lamb wave : Plate waves, can be propagated only in very thin metals.
Lamb waves are the most commonly used plate waves in NDT. Lamb
waves are a complex vibrational wave that travels through the entire
thickness of a material. Propagation of these waves depends on density,
elastic, and material properties of a component, and they are influenced
by a great deal by selected frequency and material thickness. With Lamb
waves, a number of modes of particle vibration are possible, but the two
most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical. The complex motion of
the particles is similar to the elliptical orbits for surface waves. This
technique can detect crack and lamination in thin strips.

Testing for surface cracks with a surface wave probe.

Surface wave propagate along the surface and is reflected from defects at
surface.

Critically refracted longitudinal waves / Creeping Waves :

The angle of incidence of
ultrasonic beam at perspex / steel surface necessary for producing L CR
waves in the specimens is estimated as sine inverse of the ratio of
longitudinal ultrasonic velocity in perspex to that in steel specimens. This
angle has been estimated to be about 27.23 study.
Creeping waves are high angle compression waves, which propagate
immediately beneath the inspection surface. They are used for a number
of applications where surface-breaking or very near-surface planar flaws
need to be detected. As creeping waves propagate, they interact with the
inspection surface causing secondary shear waves to be emitted. This
continuous transfer of energy, from one wave mode to another, means
that creeping waves are attenuated rapidly and inspection is only effective
over a relatively short range [ 40 - 50mm / 1.6 - 2.0 ]. For this reason they
are normally used to inspect specific areas such as the toe of welds,
where the probe can be placed in close contact with the area of interest.
Unlike true surface waves, creeping waves are relatively insensitive to the
condition of the inspection surface and do not require excess ultrasonic
couplant or dirt to be removed.

Display

Creeping wave probes are a special type of Transmitter Receiver

probes, which generate longitudinal waves at angles between 70 and 90
in the test material. These waves, commonly known as creeping waves,
propagate parallel to the surface of the test piece; a shear wave beam is
also generated, which radiates at an angle of about 33. Creeping wave
probes are suitable for detection and sizing of flaws close to the surface
like deep IGSCC (intergranular stress-corrosion cracking). Creeping
waves are unaffected by liquid drops, welding spatters or other materials
on the surface. However, the working range is short because of the steep
energy decay. Usually, the most sensitive point, the so-called "focus" is
located just in front of the probe itself. Nominal focus distance ranges up
to 20 mm and the maximum useful range is typically 45 mm.

Display

Attenuation of ultrasound :
The amplitude of ultrasonic wave decreases as the propagating
distance increases. The amplitude of ultrasonic wave which has
propagated the distance of x is represented as

V(x)=V0 e -ax
where, a is the attenuation coefficient of a material.

Display

Ultrasonic Probes / Transducers :

There are two major types of transducers : contact and immersion.
Contact : As the name implies, contact transducers are used in direct
contact with the test surface. Contact transducers, utilize a coupling
material, such as water, glycerin, grease, engine oil, wall paper paste,
methyl cellulose etc to prevent air gaps from resisting ultrasound
transmission in to the test material. The coupling medium must be non
corrosive. Except immersion type, all other transducer operate in contact
with the test object.
Immersion : Immersion transducers are designed to couple sound energy
into the test piece through a water column or water bath. They are used in
automated scanning applications and also in situations where a sharply
focused beam is needed to improve flaw resolution. These transducers are
longitudinal wave type with normal incidence. The transducer is angulated to
produce refracted angular beams inside the test object. It is not possible to
transmit shear wave in water.

Display

Ultrasonic Probes :
Normal Incidence : They
introduce sound energy
perpendicular to the
surface, and are typically
used for locating voids,
porosity, and cracks or
delaminations parallel to
the outside surface of a
part, as well as for
measuring thickness.
Angular incidence

Piezoelectric Crystals :
Piezoelectric materials are used for generation of ultrasound.
Certain materials such as Quartz becomes electrically charged when
mechanical force deforms its shape.
This property of the disc is used for detection of waves reflected by the test
part.
Modern ultrasonic Probes use artificially produced ceramics which is
polarized to develop piezoelectric properties. The ceramic material is non
conductor, hence both the faces are coated with silver to make electrical
connections.

Piezoelectric effect :
piezoelectric materials becomes electrically charged when mechanical
force acts on its surface. Piezoelectric disc is utilized for detection of flaws
when reflected waves applies deforming force on the disc.
Ultrasonic probes use artificially produced ceramics which generates
ultrasonic waves in the test material with better efficiency than quartz.

Reverse Piezoelectric effect :

The thickness of a piezoelectric disc changes when an electric field is
applied on to its surface.

A Triggering high voltage electrical pulse of short duration is applied to

the piezoelectric disc to force it into oscillation :
The oscillating crystal, when in contact with a medium, produces
mechanical vibrations in the medium.

Expansion and contraction of the front

surface of the piezoelectric element,
which is in contact with a material,
produces successive compression
and rarefaction in the medium which
transfers mechanical energy from one
end to the other end.

Display

Generation and Reception of Ultrasound :

Ultrasonic testing relies on the transducer to generate and receive
ultrasound. The ceramic piezoelectric crystal produces mechanical
vibrations that pass through the part and also change the returning pulse
echo from mechanical vibrations back into electrical signal so that the
detector can display these signals.

Composite elements :
An array of active piezoelectric rods are embedded into a passive
ceramic polymer structure known as the 1-3 piezo-composite structure.
Their properties depend on the ceramic and polymer properties and on the
microstructure itself .
Composite materials have a high coupling coefficient that confers a high
sensitivity and signal to noise ratio [ + 10 to 30 dB compared to
conventional ceramics ]. The lower and adjustable acoustic impedance
allows a higher energy transfer in water, and a lower reverberation level on
the front face for immersion testing applications.

Composite crystals :
The 1-3 structure of the composite avoids
radial vibration modes. This performance
directly benefits to the beam pattern and
pulse shape.
Composite materials can be mechanically
focused. This property allows the
manufacturing of cylindrical, spherical or
curved transducers without using acoustic
lens. Lens attenuation is avoided and allows
a more predictable beam pattern.
Composite materials also have a higher
mechanical resistance, that confers to the
transducers a higher resistance to
mechanical shocks, vibrations, temperature
constraints and pressure constraints.

Normal probe : Typical transducers for ultrasonic flaw detection utilize an

active piezoelectric element ceramic, composite, or polymer. When this
element is excited by a high voltage electrical pulse, it vibrates across a
specific spectrum of frequencies and generates a burst of sound waves.
When the element is vibrated by an incoming sound wave, it generates an
electrical pulse. The front surface of the element is usually covered by a
wear plate that protects it from damage during contact testing.

Damping the crystal vibrations : The back surface of the element is

bonded to backing material [ usually tungsten powder in araldite ] .The
damping material attached to the back of the crystal mechanically damps
the vibration and shortens its ringing time. Sharper signals are produced
with an increase in echo resolution. Because sound energy at ultrasonic
frequencies does not travel efficiently through gasses, a thin layer of
coupling liquid or gel is normally used between the transducer and the test
piece.

Piezoelectric Ceramic elements : Lead

Zirconate Titanate [ PZT ] and Barium
Titanate are most common. Barium
Titanate is the most efficient ultrasound
generator. Lithium Sulphate is the best
receiver but hygroscopic in nature. Lead
Zirconate Titanate has the best overall
generating receiving performance. Other
elements are Lead Meta Niobate,
Polivinilidine Chloride etc.

Wear Plates : Mostly Aluminium Oxide ceramic discs bonded to the front
surface of the active element is used as rubbing face which protects the
soft silver coated surface from wear during contact testing. The piezo
element is protected as long as the wear plate is undamaged.

Normal probe with 24 mm diameter active element. A Lemo type connecting

cable which connects the probe to the flaw detector and replaceable plastic
front face protective membranes.

Normal probes, 24 mm and 10 mm element [ crystal ] size. The front ring

holds the replaceable plastic membrane in place.

A normal beam [ Longitudinal wave ] probe being used for flaw detection :
This method is called contact testing which uses a coupling medium
between the probe and the test part .

Normal probes for immersion testing have a

beam focusing lens attached to the face of
the probe. Immersion transducers dont come
into contact with the component under
examination. Instead, they operate within a
liquid. The watertight housing eliminates the
chance of air pockets affecting results. The
probe and the object is immersed in a water
tank. This method is mainly used for thin
objects, small objects with shapes and
objects with complicates shapes. Immersion
technique mostly uses C scan recording
which records a plan view of the test object.

The Cathode Ray Tube [ CRT ] which displays the test signals on the front
face, a phosphor coated screen. The heated filament in the electron gun
emits electrons which are focused on the screen to produce an illuminated
spot.

The X and Y plates deflects the electron spot across the screen. The fast
moving spot display the electrical signals in X and Y plane.

The instruments which display the ultrasonic test information are known as
Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors. Three major components of an ultrasonic
system, are the transducer that generates ultrasound, the pulser -receiver
which acts as communicator between the transducer and display and a
screen to display test signals. The pulser provides excitation pulses to drive
the transducer, and the receiver provides amplification and filtering for the
returning signals coming from the part through the transducer. Pulse
amplitude, shape, and damping can be controlled to optimize transducer
performance, and receiver gain and bandwidth can be adjusted to optimize
signal-to-noise ratios. The display may be a CRT, a liquid crystal, or an
electro luminescent display. The screen will typically be calibrated in units
of depth or distance. Multicolor displays can be used to provide interpretive
assistance.

The basic controls which are used to setup an ultrasonic flaw detector for
the examination are ;
on off switch, focus, mode control, gain control, range and
delay controls, reject control, gate controls. Battery operated machines also
provide a battery charging socket and battery status indicator. The machine
automatically switches off when the battery is drained.

In addition to on off, the switch selects between a low output high

resolution or a high output low resolution mode.
The mode switch selects single or double probe
operation.
In the single mode, both the probe sockets are
identical. In the dual mode, one socket is only transmitter while the other is
only receiver.

Display

The coarse range selects the operating range of the flaw detector, which is
normally 10 50, 50 250, 250 1000 and 1000 5000 mm, when using
a longitudinal wave probe. When a shear wave probe is used the ranges
become approximately half.
The 20 dB control has 0, 20, 40, 60 dB settings. Each step above the
0 step, amplify the existing signals by 10 times.

Display

The gate controls select a portion of the calibrated range to monitor

ultrasonic signals. A signal located in the gated region triggers an alarm
and a LED in the detector.
The reject control can be used to suppress lower amplitude
noise signals which interferes during the testing.

Display

The focus control sharpens the CRT trace for better resolution.
The 2 dB step gain control has 20 steps of 2 dB
each. Each step amplifies the existing signals by 1.25 times.

Display

Fine range and delay controls are multi turn controls used to adjust the
calibration signals to appropriate scale divisions. The delay control is used
to set the first calibration signal. The range control is used to set the
second calibration signal. The delay control can be used to shift the signals
across the CRT screen without disturbing a calibrated range.

Display

Test Range Calibration with normal

probe :
Before actual testing, the machine is
first set to a known distance range by
calibrating the CRT screen using back
wall echoes from test blocks
accurately machined to a standard
thickness.
The test material and the material of
the calibration block must be same.

Display

The International Institute of Welding calibration block, IIW - V1 is the

standard block for setting up an ultrasonic flaw detector for testing
applications.

Display

These blocks are also produced with some difference in design features.

Display

IIW V1 block major dimensions : The plastic insert is used for checking
the sound generating power of the flaw detector.

Display

Normal probe placed on the face [ 25 mm thk ] of the IIW block for the
purpose of test range calibration.

Display

Repetitive signal of the back reflection can be seen on the CRT screen.

Locations of echoes after 100 mm range calibration :

Test range 100 mm, 1 small scale division equals 2 mm.
Location of 1st back wall echo 25 / 2 = 12.5th division.
Location of 2nd back wall echo 50 / 2 = 25th division.

By positioning the echoes as shown in the picture, 125 mm range can

be calibrated :
1st echo 25 / 2.5 = 10th division
2nd echo 50 / 2.5 = 20th division
3rd echo 75 / 2.5 = 30th division

Echo Signals as displayed on the CRT screen after calibration.

Signal locations on a 100 mm calibrated screen, when the probe is placed

on a thickness of 25 mm :
Echoes set to 12.5, 25, 37.5 and 50 divisions.

A block of material, which is accurately machined to a standard thickness

can be used to calibrate different test ranges.
The block produces a series of back wall signals at regular interval.

Modern Digital flaw detectors allow easy set up of test parameters. Internal
data loggers can be used to record full waveform and setup information
associated with each test. These flaw detectors can display selected
information like echo amplitude, beam path, depth or distance readings.

Digital flaw detectors capture a

waveform digitally and then perform
various measurement and analysis
function on it. A clock or timer will
be used to synchronize transducer
pulses and provide distance
calibration. Signal processing may
be as simple as generation of a
waveform display that shows signal
amplitude versus time on a
calibrated scale, or as complex as
sophisticated digital processing
algorithms that incorporate distance
/ amplitude correction and
trigonometric calculations for
angled sound paths. Alarm gates
are often employed to monitor
signal levels at selected points in
the wave train to flag echoes from
flaws.

Pulse-echo method :
This method uses short pulses of sound that travel through the part to either
locate a crack or the back side of the part. Its suitable for flaw detection or
thickness testing. The time it takes for the sound to travel through the part
and bounce back is calculated using the simple equation, d = v t / 2 where d
is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity, v is the velocity of
sound waves and t is the round-trip transmit time. The user moves a
transducer over the surface of the part, and the tester will record the
echoes.

Pulse
echo
method

There are three ways to display information collected from an ultrasonic

tester. Theyre known as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan. The A-scan
presentation displays the relative amount of energy received on the vertical
axis and elapsed time along the horizontal axis. The B-scan display is a
cross-sectional view with travel time displayed along the vertical axis and
linear position of the transducer displayed along the horizontal axis. C-scan
presentations are used with automated data acquisition systems. The Cscan displays information along a plane of the image parallel to the scan
pattern of the transducer. Gaps in the scan pattern represent defects within
the material.

Inspection Modes
Pulse-Echo

Through Transmission
Transmit

Transmit
&
Receive

Receive
Pulse-Echo
Pulse-Echo- -One
OneTransducer
Transducer
Ultrasound
Ultrasoundreflected
reflectedfrom
fromthe
thesample
sampleisisused.
used.
Can
determine
which
interface
is
delaminated.
Can determine which interface is delaminated.
Requires
Requiresscanning
scanningfrom
fromboth
bothsides
sidestotoinspect
inspect
all
interfaces.
all interfaces.
Provides
Providesimages
imageswith
withhigh
highdegree
degreeofofspatial
spatial
detail.
detail.
Peak
PeakAmplitude,
Amplitude,Time
TimeofofFlight
Flight(TOF)
(TOF)and
and
Phase
Inversion
measurement
Phase Inversion measurement

Through
ThroughTransmission
Transmission- -Two
TwoTransducers
Transducers
Ultrasound
transmitted
through
Ultrasound transmitted throughthe
the
sample
is
used.
sample is used.
One
OneScan
Scanreveals
revealsdelamination
delaminationatatall
all
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No
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determinewhich
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interfaceisis
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Less
Lessspatial
spatialresolution
resolutionthan
thanpulse-echo.
pulse-echo.
Commonly
used
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verify
pulse-echo
Commonly used to verify pulse-echo
results.
results.

Inspection Modes
Through Transmission
1

Transmit

Receive

A-SCAN
Initial Pulse

Transducer

Front surface
Interface of
interest
Back surface

Sample

A-SCAN
100%

Phase

Amplitude %FSH 0%

Phase

-100%

Time / Depth

A-Scans provide the following information:

1. Amplitude / % of full screen height (FSH)
2. Phase / positive or negative peak
3. Time / Depth

B-Scan
Front surface
Signal from
indication
Back surface

The blue line (B-scan gate) represents the depth

of information recorded.

Front surface

Signal from
indication

Back surface

C-SCAN
IP
Front surface

Back surface

Area of interest
The red box (data gate) indicates
the depth of information.

Immersion testing setup

Immersion testing machine

Immersion testing machine with 3 axis probe manipulator

Immersion testing machine

Immersion testing machine This is another name for a top (or plan) view
image. C-Scans can be obtained from immersion testing systems (where
a 0 compression wave probe is scanned across an area through a
water path, i.e. non-contact scanning) or from direct 0 contact scans.
Depending on the mode of operation selected, the colour coding levels
on the image may represent signal amplitude or range. The latter case is
used for automated corrosion mapping where on-screen cursors can be
used to show the thickness at any point and sectional thickness plots

Immersion testing machine This is another name for a top (or plan) view
image. C-Scans can be obtained from immersion testing systems (where
a 0 compression wave probe is scanned across an area through a
water path, i.e. non-contact scanning) or from direct 0 contact scans.
Depending on the mode of operation selected, the colour coding levels
on the image may represent signal amplitude or range. The latter case is
used for automated corrosion mapping where on-screen cursors can be
used to show the thickness at any point and sectional thickness plots

Type of test part which requires c scan recording.

Sound field [ intensity distribution ] of a probe : The near field is an area

of space in which the sound waves are not uniform. The ultrasonic beam
is more uniform in the far field, where the beam is spread out in a pattern
originating from the center of the transducer. The variations that occur in
the near field eventually change to a smooth and declining amplitude, at
which point the far field begins.

Sound field, Near and Far zone of a normal probe : The near field is an
area of space in which the sound waves are not uniform. The ultrasonic
beam is more uniform in the far field, where the beam is spread out in a
pattern originating from the center of the transducer. The variations that
occur in the near field eventually change to a smooth and declining
amplitude, at which point the far field begins.

Sound field of a normal beam

probe Ultrasound spreads out from
a true parallel beam and the
intensity per unit area reduces with
distance from the source.

Sound field of a probe :

The sound field of a probe is
divided into two zones.
Near zone : Intensity in this zone
vary because of interference effect.
Signal from a constant reflector
vary from place to place. This zone
is not suitable for flaw
measurements.
Near zone length D2 / 4 , where D
is element diameter and is
effective wavelength.
Far zone : is after near zone, and
intensity is inversely proportional to
square of distance. This zone is
suitable for flaw measurements.
Half Beam spread = 1.22 / D

Sound field of a probe :

The sound field of a probe is
divided into two zones.
Near zone : Intensity in this
zone vary because of
interference effect. Signal from
a constant reflector vary from
place to place. This zone is not
suitable for flaw
measurements.
Near zone length D2 / 4 ,
where D is element diameter
and is effective wavelength.
Far zone : is after near zone,
and intensity is inversely
proportional to square of
distance. This zone is suitable
for flaw measurements. Half
Beam spread = 1.22 / D

Because of variation of sound intensity at different distances, the signal from a

constant reflector vary with distance. Correction of :

Display

Signal amplitude from a 2 mm dia FBH for a 2 MHz, 24 mm dia probe.

Display

Display

Signal amplitude comparison for a back wall and from a 2 mm dia FBH for a
2 MHz, 24 mm dia normal probe.
Echo amplitude from a large reflector such as a back wall is inversely
proportional to the distance. Echo amplitude from a small reflector such as a
flaw is inversely proportional to the square of distance, i. e. signal of a small
reflector becomes one-fourth if its distance is doubled.

Flat Bottom Holes which can be used for setting test sensitivity with
normal probes and comparing disc equivalent reflectors in wrought
products.

ASTM set of 10 Flat Bottom Hole blocks which can be used for
checking dead zone, resolution and drawing Distance Amplitude
Correction [ DAC ] curves for normal beam testing. :

Flat Bottom Hole blocks Distance Amplitude

Correction [ DAC ] curves for normal beam
testing. :

Flat Bottom Hole set of 19 blocks which can be used for checking
amplitude linearity of signals and drawing DAC curves for normal beam
testing. :

Probe placed on a FBH block, the larger echo is from the back of the block
and the smaller one is from the hole bottom.

Side drilled hole block may also be used for setting up test sensitivity..

Display

Drawing DAC curve with Side drilled hole block. These method is normally
used for weld testing.

Display

Drawing DAC with Flat Bottom Hole blocks.

Display

Drawing DAC with Side drilled hole block.

Display

Digital flaw detectors can draw DAC and the screen display can be saved
for future use.

Display

DAC curve is used for signal comparison.

Display

Thickness Measurements :
Thickness measurements are performed using a conventional flaw
detector and a compression wave probe, which sends longitudinal waves
into the component at normal incidence to the surface. Signals are
displayed on the flaw detector screen in the form of an A-scan, in which the
horizontal axis represents distance and the vertical axis represents signal
amplitude. Since a 0 compression probe is being used, the horizontal axis
is equivalent to depth from the scanning surface. When the probe is placed
on the surface of the component, a reflection appears at a range
corresponding to the thickness of the component at that point. The use of
an A-scan display allows the operator to distinguish more easily between
signals originating from embedded plate flaws and the nominal back wall
response. Also, the dynamics of the back wall echo can be observed on
the A-scan display to detect the presence of pitting. Conventional twincrystal 0 compression probes are generally used to detect hidden
corrosion. However, where pitted surfaces are being assessed for
remaining thickness, pencil probes are used. These have a pointed tip
which is designed to fit into the pits, so that the remaining thickness can be
measured where the external pitting is at its most severe.

Display

Flaw Detection :
Straight beam testing is used for examining bar stock for internal flaws.

Display

Angle beam testing is used for examining welds for internal flaws.

Display

Display

The shell of the mill roles are regularly monitored by ultrasonic testing.

In a mill roll hard shell [ about 3 inches thick ] is bonded to a softer core.
The bonding can be tested by straight beam examination.
Cracking in shell material can be examined with angle beam probes.
Depth of surface breaking cracks can be estimated using Surface wave
probes.

Display

Fractured roll surface.

Display

Display

Normal probes are used for testing Ingots. Large ingots are forged to
Blooms or Billets. Small ingots are rolled to bars.
Efficiency of testing depends on the surface condition and the grain size of
the ingot.
Ingots are tested for piping and crack.

Display

Normal probes are used for testing billets. Most Billets are produced by
continuous casting.
Billets are tested for crack, piping etc,

Slabs are tested with normal beam probes before they are rolled into
plates. Slabs, produced by continuous casting may be rolled directly in to
plates with out ultrasonic examination.

Display

Plate testing is one of the major applications of normal beam probes.

Plates are produced by rolling.
Plates are tested for lamination, cracks and large inclusions
which also produce laminar discontinuities. Surface breaking cracks are
tested with a 450 angle beam probe.

Display

Plate scanner :
For scanning a large number of plates

Display

Plate scanner :
For scanning a large number of plates

Display

Normal probes are used for testing Forgings.

Forgings are tested for forging bursts, crack, flakes, piping, blowholes,
inclusions, segregations and coarse grain structure.

Display

Segregations and coarse grain structure.

Display

Rough forged bars limits the efficiency of testing. Forged bars are
generally rough machined before ultrasonic testing.

Display

Rough forged blanks, are s limits the efficiency of testing. Forged bars are
generally rough machined before ultrasonic testing.

Display

Rolled rings are ultrasonic tested for laminar defects.

Display

Flanges are generally rough machined before ultrasonic testing.

Bars and shapes are also tested by straight beam probes. For circular
shapes, a matching curved shoe is usually fitted to front of the probe.
Bars are tested for piping, lamination, chevrons and stringers

Display

Casting are also tested by straight beam

probes. Efficiency may be limited due to the
material type, surface roughness and
complicated shapes.

Display

Casting are also tested by straight beam

probes. Efficiency may be limited due to the
material type, surface roughness and
complicated shapes.

Display

Display

Large Casting are also tested by straight beam probes. Efficiency may be
limited due to the material type, surface roughness, material thickness,
and complicated shapes.

Display

Press forged parts, major defect, cracks at the outer surface.

Display

Seamless tubes are tested using angle beam probes..

Seamless tubes are tested using angle beam

probes..

Display

Display

Nozzle welds

If the sensitivity calibration block is different, correction for transfer loss is

required.

Display

Dead zone :
A single element
normal probe has
a dead zone
starting
immediately after
the entry surface
where flaws
cannot be
detected. The
width of the initial
pulse shows the
dead zone during
testing.

Delay Line Transducers

Delay line transducers
incorporate a short plastic wave
guide or delay line between the
active element and the test
piece. They are used to improve
near surface resolution and also
in high temperature testing,
where the delay line protects the
active element from thermal
damage.

Dual element probe :

Dead zone of a single element probe can be eliminated by dual element

arrangement. This transducer uses a pitch-and-catch effect. It uses two
elements. One element transmits the signal, while the other one receives it.
The probe generates longitudinal waves into a delay line. The angled
arrangement of the elements produce a pseudo focus where the detection
sensitivity is maximum.

Dual Element normal probes :

are available in different element sizes and operating frequencies. Different
probes are used for thickness measurements and flaw detection.

Dual Element Angle probes :

are available in different element sizes and
operating frequencies. Dual element angle
probes are used for thin materials and coarse
grained welds. To further improve signal to
noise ratio, it is possible to use dual element,
transverse wave probes (TRT probes) or lens
focused transverse wave probes. As a
consequence, there is a restricted range of
maximum sensitivity, just as with TRL probes.

Dual element probe uses a

long plastic delay line which
eliminates the initial echo
from the screen. A cross talk
barrier [ cork ] separates the
transmitter and receiver
delay lines and does not
allow detection of entry
surface signal.The return
signals from the transmitter
delay line are not detected
because the transmitting
probe has no receiving
function.

Sensitivity curve for twin probes :

The arrangements of the elements produces a pseudo focus where the
sensitivity of the probe is maximum and after this distance the sensitivity
drops rapidly. For detecting small flaws the usable test range is around
50 mm.

A twin probe being used with an ultrasonic flaw detector. Dual Element Transducers -- Dual element transducers utilize separate
transmitter and receiver elements in a single assembly. They are often
used in applications involving rough surfaces, coarse grained materials,
detection of pitting or porosity, and they offer good high temperature
tolerance as well.

Sheet metals : Dual Element Transducers -- Dual element transducers

utilize separate transmitter and receiver elements in a single assembly.
They are often used in applications involving rough surfaces, coarse grained
materials, detection of pitting or porosity, and they offer good high
temperature tolerance as well.

Examination of bonding is an important application of a twin probe.

White metal lining on carbon steel are checked for bonding integrity.
Titanium and stainless steel bonding to carbon steel plates are checked
frequently.

Examination of bonding is
an important application of
a twin probe. White metal
lining on carbon steel are
checked for bonding
integrity. Titanium and
stainless steel bonding to
carbon steel plates are
checked frequently.

One of the important applications of Twin probe is in a Digital Thickness

Gauge :
The gauge has a built in thickness reference for calibration. Thickness is
digitally displayed in mm or inches. Nominal accuracy 0.1 mm. The gauge
can measure different materials with suitable calibration or correction.

Digital gauging is extensively used for measuring the remaining thickness

of corroded plates in ships : Internal corrosion pitting and general erosion in
most metals. A-Scan thickness surveys are also used for the inspection of
parent material for inclusions and laminations. Generally used for thickness
surveys on pressure vessels, pipelines, storage tanks and ship hulls.

A Digital gauge is used for

measuring the remaining
thickness of corroded pipes in
chemical plants. Thickness
measurements are performed
using a conventional flaw
detector and a compression
wave probe, which sends
longitudinal waves into the
component at normal
incidence to the surface.
Signals are displayed on the
flaw detector screen in the
form of an A-scan, in which
the horizontal axis represents
distance and the vertical axis
represents signal amplitude.
Since a 0 compression probe
is being used, the horizontal
axis is equivalent to depth
from the scanning surface.

When the probe is placed on the

surface of the component, a reflection
appears at a range corresponding to the
thickness of the component at that
point. Conventional twin-crystal 0
compression probes are generally used
to detect hidden corrosion. However,
where pitted surfaces are being
assessed for remaining thickness,
pencil probes are used. These have a
pointed tip which is designed to fit into
the pits, so that the remaining thickness
can be measured where the external
pitting is at its most severe.

Some Digital gauge can

measure thickness of a part
without removing the paint
coating.
They work on echo to echo
measurement principle.

Echo to Echo measurement.

Echo to Echo thickness gauge with A

- Scan display.
The use
of an A-scan display allows the
operator to distinguish more easily
between signals originating from
embedded plate flaws and the
nominal back wall response. Also,
the dynamics of the back wall echo
can be observed on the A-scan
display to detect the presence of
pitting. Conventional twin

A through paint test gauge in use.

A Step block is recommended for

dual probe range calibration
when an ultrasonic flaw detector
is to be used.

Step thickness plates are used to check the accuracy of digital gauges.

Initial calibration is performed on

the 5 mm block.

The minimum required accuracy is + / - .1

mm.

When measuring thickness below 2 mm, there may be an error, and the
reading may be twice the actual thickness because the sound may bounce
twice within the part before reaching the receiving element.

Various step blocks for thickness gauges.

Flaw Orientation :
A normal probe detects flaws that are parallel to the test surface. Normal
probe fails to detects flaws orientated at an angle to the test surface.

Display

An angle probe detects flaws orientated at an angle to the test surface.

Angle probe fails to detects flaws that are parallel to the test surface such as
laminations.

Display

Angle beam reflects well from corners and surface flaws which produces
corners. Angle beam transducer are used when looking for defects that are
neither parallel nor perpendicular to the test surface.

Display

Angle beam interception is the only way to examine welds with

reinforcements, where the sound beam is to be directed to the weld body
from the base material. Irregular contour of the weld surface does not allow
suitable contact for straight beam probes. Flaws such as lack of fusion is
inclined to the test surface and can be detected only by angle beam directed
perpendicular to the major reflecting surface.

Display

Normal beam often fails to detect surface breaking radial cracks.

Display

The narrow end of radial cracks reflect very little energy for detection. Delay
line transducer. This contact transducer contains a plastic wedge
between the transducer and the part being measured. Basically, it
eliminates the near field.

Display

High-frequency transducer. Transducers use frequencies from 0.5

Display

A 700 or 600 angle probe detects surface breaking radial cracks reliably. The
diverging beam reflects well from the corner formed by the crack at surface.

Angle probes :
Angle beam transducers are
used in conjunction with plastic
wedges to introduce shear
waves or longitudinal waves into
a test piece at a designated
angle with respect to the
surface. They are commonly
used in weld inspection.
Longitudinal wave is refracted
through the wedge to produce
Refracted longitudinal waves,
creeping waves, shear waves,
surface waves as required.
The incident angle in
the plastic block controls the
refracted beam angles and wave
modes.

Display

Single crystal shear wave

probes are the most commonly
used probes for ultrasonic
inspection, usually with 45,
60 and 70 beam angles
designed for steel. For some
inspections, however, it may
be useful to optimize the angle
and the crystal size to get the
best sensitivity and signal to
noise ratio. 30 and 80
probes are also used when
required. By using elliptical or
rectangular elements, the spot
size in the material can be
precisely defined and the
beam can be directed to
minimize beam spread.

Display

Incident angle in Perspex vs refracted angle in steel

Action of an angle beam probe.

Trigonometric flaw locating :

Distance to reflector from probe exit point = beam path X Sin of beam angle
Depth from test surface = beam path X Cos of beam angle

Range calibration and locating the exit point of an angle beam probe :

locating the exit point of an angle beam probe :

The signal from the radius is maximized, the mark on the
probe body which coincides with the center of the scale marked on the face
of the IIW block is the exit point. Exit point shifts with probe wear.

Locating the exit point of an angle beam probe :

Angle probe Range calibration using reflection from the 100 mm radius :

200 mm calibrated screen

Range 200 mm, 1 small scale division 200 / 50 = 4 mm

IIW V2 calibration block which can be used for range calibration with
miniature angle probes. These blocks are made from Mild Steel,
Stainless Steel and Aluminum.

Ultrasonic calibration blocks :

DC calibration block for angle probe range calibration.
Produces echoes from both the radius simultaneously.
calibration block for angle probe range calibration

Ultrasonic calibration blocks :

AWS block for plotting vertical linearity of the flaw detector.
AWS block for checking resolving power of
angle probes.

IIW- V2 block is most popular for test range calibration in field testing
because of its small size.

This block can be used to find exit point, beam angle determination
and test range calibration. Beam exit point found from this block has a
little error because of the near zone effect of the probe. The 50 mm
radius reflection is recommended for this purpose.

Distance to echoes when the 25 mm radius is scanned.

Distance to echoes when the 50 mm radius is scanned.

A 100 mm calibrated screen :

A 125 mm calibrated screen :

A 125 mm calibrated screen :

Angle check using a V2 block : the hole indication is maximized

and the angle is calculated using the equations given below.

Weld testing

Display

Butt welds : A butt weld is made between two pieces of metal usually in
the same plane, the weld metal maintaining continuity between the
sections.

Fillet welds : These welds are roughly triangular in cross section and
between two surfaces not in the same plane and the weld metal is
substantially placed alongside the components being joined.

Weld joint preparation.

Weld joint preparation.

Weld joint fit up before welding. The weld groove which is to be filled by
welding can be seen.

Weld joint fit up for a pipe to reducer joint, the root gap is clearly visible.

Double Vee Weld groove fit up for plates bend in to pipes

Welding sequence.

Welding sequence :

Welding sequence

Welded layers

Weld and heat affected zone :

The heat of fusion affects the
base material adjacent to either
side of the weld. Flaw detection
should take into consideration of
these zones.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding : Several welding processes are based on

heating with an electric arc, the oldest and simple is the shielded metal arc
welding [ SMAW ] or stick welding. In this process an electrical machine
[ which may be DC or AC ] supplies current to an electrode holder which
carries an electrode. An earth cable connects the work piece to the welding
machine to provide a return path for the current. The weld is initiated by
tapping [ striking ] the tip of the electrode against the work piece which
initiates an electric arc. The high temperature generated [ about 6000 oC ]
almost instantly produces a molten pool and the end of the electrode. The
electrode continuously melts into this pool and fills the groove. The operator
needs to control the gap between the electrode tip and the work piece while
moving the electrode along the joint.

In the shielded metal arc welding

process [ SMAW ] the 'stick' electrode
is covered with an extruded coating of
flux. The heat of the arc melts the flux
which generates a gaseous shield to
keep air away from the molten pool
and also flux ingredients react with
unwanted impurities such as surface
oxides, creating a slag which floats to
the surface of the weld pool. This
forms a crust which protects the weld
while it is cooling. When the weld is
cold the slag is chipped off.
Major defects in this process are ;
Undercutting, Incomplete penetration,
incomplete fusion, Porosity, Slag
Inclusions, Cracks, burn through.

Shown in the picture is the electrode

and its holder. The cover on the
electrode is flux. An old electrical
power source can also be seen in the
behind. The SMAW process can not
be used on steel thinner than about
3mm and being a discontinuous
process it is only suitable for manual
operation. It is very widely used in
fabrication shops and for on site steel
construction work. A wide range of
electrode materials and coatings are
available enabling the process to be
applied to most steels, heat resisting
alloys and many types of cast iron.

A SMAW deposit and cover blanket of the slag. The flux covering the
electrode melts during welding. This forms the gas and slag to shield
the arc and molten weld pool. The slag must be chipped off the weld
bead after welding. The flux also provides a method of adding
scavengers, deoxidizers, and alloying elements to the weld metal.

The covering slag removed from the finished weld and the weld bead
exposed.

Submerged arc welding [ SAW ] is a high quality, very high deposition

rate welding process. The electric arc is submerged below the loose
granular flux which is poured into the groove separately. This method is
used for, fast, large scale welding of thicker plates in fabrication shops.
Common defects in Submerged Arc Welding : Solidification
Cracking, Hydrogen Cracking , Incomplete penetration, Incomplete
fusion, Slag inclusion, Porosity.

The arc is formed between a continuously-fed wire electrode and the

workpiece, and the weld is formed by the arc melting the workpiece and the
wire. The layer of flux generates the gases and slag to protect the weld pool
and hot weld metal from contamination. Flux plays an additional role in
adding alloying elements to the weld pool.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding : In this process the arc is formed between a
pointed tungsten electrode and the workpiece in an inert atmosphere of
argon or helium. The small intense arc provided by the pointed electrode is
ideal for high quality and precision welding, specially useful for thin joints. If
filler wire is used, it is added to the weld pool separately. GTAW has played
a major role in the acceptance of aluminium for high quality welding and
structural applications.

The process is well suited to joining

non - ferrous metals, including
aluminum, magnesium, refractory and
special metals and is effective for
joining thin section metals. A high
degree of skill is needed, but high
quality welds can be produced.
Helium is generally added to increase
heat input. Hydrogen will result in
cleaner looking welds and also
increase heat input, however,
Hydrogen may promote porosity or
hydrogen cracking. Because the
electrode is not consumed during
welding, the welder does not have to
balance the heat input from the arc as
the metal is deposited from the
melting electrode. Undercutting,
Tungsten inclusions, Porosity, Weld
metal cracks, Heat affected zone
cracks are the common defects.

MIG welding :
In MIG the arc is
formed between the end of a small
diameter wire electrode fed from a
spool, and the work piece. The
shielding gas, Argon or CO2 forms
the arc plasma, stabilizes the arc
on the metal being welded, shields
the arc and molten weld pool, and
allows smooth transfer of metal
from the weld wire to the weld
groove. Main equipment
components are :
power source
Wire feed system
Conduit
Gun

In MIG welding, a shielding gas is fed into the welding torch and exits
around the filler wire. The arc and the weldpool are protected from the
atmosphere by this gas shield. This enables bare wire to be used without a
flux coating. However, the absence of flux to 'mop up' surface oxide places
greater demand on the welder to ensure that the joint area is cleaned
immediately before welding. This can be done using either a wire brush for
relatively clean parts, or a hand grinder to remove rust and scale. The other
essential piece of equipment is a wire cutter to trim the end of the electrode
wire. In this process a filler metal is stored on a spool and driven by rollers
[ current is fed into the wire ] through a tube into a 'torch'. The large amount
of filler wire on the spool means that the process can be considered to be
continuous and long, uninterrupted welds can easily be made. In this
process they key issues are selecting the correct shielding gas and flow
rate and the welding wire speed and current. MIG process can readily be
automated and MIG welding is now commonly carried out by robots. This
welding process is widely used on steels and on aluminium. Although the
inert gas shield keeps the weld clean, depending upon the process settings,
there may be spatter of metal globules adjacent to the weld which detracts
from its appearance unless they are removed.

Metal Inert Gas Welding machine :

Common defects in MIG welding are ;

Undercutting, Excessive melt-through,
Incomplete fusion, Incomplete joint
penetration, Porosity, Weld metal cracks,
Heat affected zone cracks.
The primary shielding gasses used are ;
Argon, Argon - 1 to 5% Oxygen, Argon - 3
to 25% CO2, Argon / Helium. CO2 is also
used in its pure form in some MIG welding
processes. However, in some applications
the presence of CO2 in the shielding gas
may adversely affect the mechanical
properties of the weld.

Flux Cored Arc Welding : FCAW is a commonly used high deposition

rate welding process that adds the benefits of flux to the welding
simplicity of MIG welding. The welding wire is continuously fed from a
spool. Flux cored welding is therefore referred to as a semiautomatic
welding process.
Self shielding flux cored arc welding wires are
available or gas shielded welding wires may be used. Flux cored
welding is generally more forgiving than MIG welding. Less precleaning
may be necessary than MIG welding. However, the condition of the
base metal can affect weld quality. Excessive contamination must be
eliminated. Flux cored welding produces a flux that must be removed.
Flux cored welding has good weld appearance (smooth, uniform welds
having good contour).
Common
defects are
Undercutting, Incomplete fusion , Slag inclusions, Porosity, Cracks.

Incomplete Penetration - A joint root condition in a groove weld in which

weld metal does not extend through the joint thickness. Failure to bridge the
root gap.

Lack of penetration and actually required penetration.

Incomplete Fusion - A weld discontinuity in which fusion did not
occur between weld metal and fusion faces or adjoining weld
beads.

Lack of fusion imperfections can occur when the weld

metal fails
to fuse completely with the sidewall of the joint (Fig. 1)
to penetrate adequately the previous weld bead (Fig. 2).
The principal causes are too narrow a joint preparation,
incorrect welding parameter settings, poor welder
technique and magnetic arc blow. Insufficient cleaning of
oily or scaled surfaces can also contribute to lack of fusion.
These types of imperfection are more likely to happen
when welding in the vertical position.

These types of imperfection are more likely in consumable

electrode processes (MIG, MMA and submerged arc
welding) where the weld metal is 'automatically' deposited
as the arc consumes the electrode wire or rod. The welder
has limited control of weld pool penetration independent of
depositing weld metal. Thus, the non consumable electrode
TIG process in which the welder controls the amount of
filler material independent of penetration is less prone to
this type of defect. Incomplete root fusion is when the weld
fails to fuse one side of the joint in the root. Incomplete
root penetration occurs when both sides of the joint are
unfused. Typical imperfections can arise in the following
situations:
an excessively thick root face in a butt weld (Fig. 1a)
too small a root gap (Fig. 1b)
misplaced welds (Fig. 1c)
failure to remove sufficient metal in cutting back to sound
metal in a double sided weld (Fig. 1d)
incomplete root fusion when using too low an arc energy

Porosity is the presence of cavities in the weld metal

caused by the freezing in of gas released from the weld
pool as it solidifies. The porosity can take several forms:
distributed
surface breaking pores
wormhole
crater pipes
Porosity is caused by the absorption of nitrogen, oxygen
and hydrogen in the molten weld pool which is then
released on solidification to become trapped in the weld
metal.
Nitrogen and oxygen absorption in the weld pool usually
originates from poor gas shielding. As little as 1% air
entrainment in the shielding gas will cause distributed
porosity and greater than 1.5% results in gross surface
breaking pores. Leaks in the gas line, too high a gas flow
rate, draughts and excessive turbulence in the weld pool
are frequent causes of porosity.

Slag is normally seen as elongated lines either continuous

or discontinuous along the length of the weld. This is
readily identified in a radiograph, Fig 1. Slag inclusions are
usually associated with the flux processes, ie MMA, FCA
and submerged arc, but they can also occur in MIG
welding. As slag is the residue of the flux coating, it is
principally a deoxidation product from the reaction
between the flux, air and surface oxide. The slag becomes
trapped in the weld when two adjacent weld beads are
deposited with inadequate overlap and a void is formed.
When the next layer is deposited, the entrapped slag is not
melted out. Slag may also become entrapped in cavities in
multi-pass welds through excessive undercut in the weld
toe or the uneven surface profile of the preceding weld
runs, Fig 2. As they both have an effect on the ease of slag
removal, the risk of slag imperfections is influenced by
Type of flux
Welder technique
The type and configuration of the joint, welding position
and access restrictions all have an influence on the risk of

they occur only in the weld metal

they normally appear as straight lines along the centreline
of the weld bead, as shown in Fig. 1, but may occasionally
appear as transverse cracking depending on the
solidification structure
solidification cracks in the final crater may have a
branching appearance
as the cracks are 'open', they are easily visible with the
naked eye On breaking open the weld, the crack surface in
steel and nickel alloys may have a blue oxidised
appearance, showing that they were formed while the weld
metal was still hot
Segregation of impurities to the centre of the weld also
encourages cracking. Concentration of impurities ahead of
the solidifying front weld forms a liquid film of low freezing
point which, on solidification, produces a weak zone. As
solidification proceeds, the zone is likely to crack as the
stresses through normal thermal contraction build up. An

Under fill - A condition in which

the weld face or root surface
extends below the adjacent
surface of the base metal.

Overlap - The protrusion of

weld metal beyond the weld
toe or weld root. There may be
fusion problem.
Undercut - A groove melted
into the base metal adjacent to
the weld toe or weld root and
left unfilled by weld metal.

Misalignment -

Cracks : A crack is produced by a

fracture which can arise from the
stresses generated on cooling or acting
on the structure. It is the most serious
type of imperfection found in a weld and
must be removed. Cracks not only
reduce the strength of the weld through
the reduction in the cross section
thickness but also can readily propagate
through stress concentration at the tip,
especially under impact loading or
during service at low temperature

T joint -

Excess weld cap Excess penetration -

Weld probing :
In a weld, discontinuities may be present anywhere within the weld and in
the heat affected zone. A combination of normal and angle probes shall be
selected such that the full body of the weld is intercepted.
Angle probing by moving the probes perpendicular to the weld seam is
performed to detect discontinuities which are along the length of the weld.

In addition, the weld shall be scanned by moving the probes nearly

parallel to the weld seam such that the discontinuities which are
transverse to the weld seam can also be detected.

The weld shall be scanned such that both longitudinal and transverse flaws
can be detected. 10% overlapping with the previous scan path is required to
ensure that complete length of the weld is examined.

Probe movement distance to scan the full body of the weld :

Scanning Distance for weld testing is 2 X Thickness X Tan A
from the edge of the weld.The weld must be scanned from both the sides of
the weld.

Display

The scanning path must

overlap by 10% with the
previous scan path.

The probe moves in a zig-zag path and parallel to the weld axis. The
sound beam scans the weld perpendicular to the weld axis.

Locating flaw position within an angle beam probe.

Locating flaw position within Leg 1 during weld testing.

Display

Locating flaw position within Leg 2 during weld testing.

Display

Locating flaw position in Leg 1 [ before reflection from undersurface ]

during weld testing.

Probe selection :
Up to 6 mm : 800 up to 10 mm : 700
10 25 mm : 700 and 600
more than 25 mm : 600 and 450
Lower frequency [ 2 2.5 MHz ] probes have better detectability for
disoriented flaws because of wider beam spread. Higher frequency
misses disoriented defects.

Locating flaw position within Leg 2 [ after reflection from undersurface ]

during weld testing.

Sensitivity setting for weld testing

Side drilled hole blocks are generally used for weld discontinuity
evaluation.

Notches shall be used for evaluating root discontinuities.

Notches shall be used for

evaluating root discontinuities.

While plotting the DAC curve, the hole must be scanned such that the
probe is at least 12.5 mm away from the edge of the block. The drilled
hole should be preferably 37.5 mm deep.

Display

Drawing DAC : up to 19 mm thk

Display

Drawing DAC :
above 19 mm
thickness.

Display

DAC plotting using Notches.

Using DAC curve

Display

A Side drilled hole block for examining curved surfaces such as pipe.

Notches on the base material and the weld surface can be used to set up
test sensitivity and verify the efficiency of testing. Notches should be made
on the root side also.

Notches shall be made along the longitudinal as well as transverse

directions to establish a scanning technique.

Angle beam testing of weld, probe angle shall be selected such that the
fusion line is intercepted perpendicularly. A strong specular reflection is
required to resolve a flaw response from the background noise level with
pulse echo ultrasonics. For planar flaws (cracks, lack of fusion, etc.) a
specular reflection will only result if the ultrasonic beam is normal (or
near normal) to the plane of the flaw. Angled beam shear wave probes
are commonly used for the manual ultrasonic inspection of welds in
ferritic steels, as these provide the only way of directing ultrasound into
the weld body when the cap reinforcement is still present. Where a weld
cap restricts probe movement, the sound can be reflected off the bottom
surface and directed into the weld body under the cap.

For a typical girth weld, a 45 probe is used for inspecting the root region,
and 60/70 probes for the sidewall fusion faces and weld body. The
behaviour of the echo-dynamic pattern and shape of the flaw response
(with respect to probe movement) can be used to identify the type of flaw,
estimate the length and, in some cases, the through-wall height of the
flaw.
Vertically orientated planar flaws can be a particular problem for
detection using an angle probe in pulse-echo mode. However, a variation
of angled shear wave ultrasonics is the Tandem technique, which is
normally used for the detection of vertical flaws in thick section
components. Two 45 shear wave probes are positioned in a jig, one

The type of material to be inspected affects the choice of angle probe.

Shear wave probes are commonly used for examining welds in fine
grained materials such as ferritic steels and aluminium. Welds in coarse
grained materials such as stainless steels, duplex stainless, copper and
composites have a severe attenuating effect on shear waves and can
cause beam skewing effects at fusion faces. For welds in these types of
materials, angled compression waves are used. However, these have a
longer wavelength than shear waves, so there is a reduction in their
resolving power. A-Scan weld inspection using angled compression wave
probes can be very difficult due to the presence of spurious mode
converted signals on the flaw detector display. Consequently, such

Most ultrasonic techniques rely on receiving specular reflections from

defects, even if only from particular facets. Time of flight diffraction
(TOFD) detects flaws using the signals diffracted from the flaw's
extremities. Two angled compression wave probes are used in transmitreceive mode, one each side of the weld. The beam divergence is such
that the majority of the thickness is inspected, although, for thicker
components, more than one probe separation may be required. When
the sound strikes the tip of a crack, this acts as a secondary emitter
which scatters sound out in all directions, some in the direction of the
receiving probe. A 'lateral wave' travelling at the same velocity as the
compression waves, travels directly from the transmitter to the receiver.
The time difference between the lateral wave and the diffracted signal
from the flaw provides a measure of its distance from the scanned
surface. If the flaw is large enough in the through wall dimension, it may
be possible to resolve the tip diffracted signals from its top and bottom,
thereby allowing the through wall height of the flaw to be measured. Due
to the low amplitude of the diffracted signals, TOFD is usually carried out
using a preamplifier and hardware designed to improve signal-to-noise
performance. As the probes are scanned along the weld, the RF A-Scan
signals are digitised and displayed in the form of a grey-scale image
showing flaws as alternating white and black fringes.

Phased array systems offer the possibility of performing inspections with

ultrasonic beams of various angles and focal lengths using a single array
of transducers. Software control over beam angle and focusing is
achieved by application of precisely controlled delays to both the
emission pulse and received signal for each element in an array of
transducers, hence the term "Phased Array". While the term "phased
array" implies handling the many signals from multi-element transducers,
the resulting A-Scan responses are comparable with those obtained
using a fixed angle probe with a conventional pulse-echo imaging
system. Therefore, imaging and image interpretation also remain the
same as for a conventional pulse-echo system.
As with other UT imaging systems, the A-Scan data can be processed to
provide top, side and end view images of the inspected volume of
material. In addition to standard imaging, Phased Array systems can
produce sectorial scans (S-Scans), a feature unique to this technology.
S-Scans are real-time side view images generated from a single
inspection point without any physical movement of the transducer.
Multiplexing also allows motionless scanning. Here a focused beam is
created using a few of the many elements contained in a Phased Array
probe (up to 128). The beam is then multiplexed to the other elements to

Scanning surfaces for weld testing.

Scanning surfaces for weld testing.

Other than root, the flaws exhibit a smooth rise and fall of echo signal.
The behaviour of the echo-dynamic pattern and shape of the flaw
response (with respect to probe movement) can be used to identify the
type of flaw, estimate the length and, in some cases, the through-wall
height of the flaw.

Weld flaw signal

Display

Display

Large slag inclusion creates fusion problem.

Display

Lack of cleanliness traps slags in the weld.

Clean weld but irregular melting of edges because of high welding

current produce undercuts. Undercut - A groove melted into the
base metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld root and left unfilled
by weld metal.

Cracks originated from copper inclusions in the weld metal:

Lack of side wall fusion.

Pores in a weld.

Cracked weld.

Dendritic and coarse grain structure

of stainless steel welds make testing
difficult.

Porosity

Slag

Undercut

Crack

Display

Root LF

Side wall LF

Concavity

Root crack

Display

Excess penetration

Incomplete Fill

Display

Probe movement for defect identification [ echo dynamics ]

Response from reflectors.

Scanning technique for establishing the type of reflector.

Flaw response curve :

Measuring the length of a reflector

Display

Measuring the height of a reflector using beam boundary

intercept technique.

Display

Measuring the height of a reflector using beam

boundary intercept technique.

Display

Checking equipment
performance :
Horizontal linearity
Vertical linearity
Resolution
Dead zone

Horizontal linearity

Vertical linearity

Checking equipment
performance :
Resolution

Auto Automated
scanning. Automated
ultrasonic scanning
systems are often
used with the part and
transducer fully
immersed in water.
This enables
consistency of
measurements
because the coupling
agents (i.e., waters)
properties remain
constant.
Another newer technology is laser ultrasonic inspection, which utilizes laser
beams to generate ultrasound and collect signals. Advances in transducer
technology have lead to the development of the air-coupled ultrasonic
technique. These systems allow sound waves to be transmitted through air
and remain strong enough to penetrate the part and return a signal.

The End
Good Luck

End of Slides

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