Chapter 3

Radio Frequency Components,

Measurement and mathematics

Communications
For successful communications you need:
Two or more devices that want to
communicate
Medium of communication
Set of rules to use

This chapter covers the medium

Components of RF
Transmission of RF signal
Role of each device
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RF Components

Transmitter
Antenna
Receiver
Intentional Radiator
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP)

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Transmitter
Transmitter begins RF communication
Generates the AC signal
Modifies the signal based on modulation technique
Carrier Signal goes through cable or direct to antenna

Transmitter also sets the power level, or

transmission amplitude
Dictated by regulation and can be adjusted

Often integrated with receiver-Transciever

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Antenna
Collects AC signal from transmitter and
radiates RF waves
With receiver, takes RF Waves and directs
to receiver
Receiver converts back to bits and bytes

Antenna signal is compared to a

theoretical isotropic radiator
Point source that radiates equally in all
directions
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Antenna
Antenna Power can be modified by
Adding power-Active Gain
Focusing Energy-Passive Gain
Like a lens

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Receiver
Takes carrier signal from antenna and
convert back into 1 and 0
Signal is much decreased from original
amplitude
Free Space Path Loss

Also altered due to interference and

multipath

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Intentional Radiator
Device that intentionally generates and emits
radio frequency energy by radiation or induction
On purpose as opposed to by-product

All components up to the antenna

Transmitter, cable, connectors, equipment

The antenna can alter by focusing

FCC dictates max power, usually in MilliWatts
(mW) or decibels relative to 1 milliwatt (dBm)

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Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power

(EIRP)
Highest signal strength transmitted from a
particular antenna
Measure of the actual output of the
antenna
Affected by shape of antenna

FCC will also regulate this power level

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Units of Power and Comparison

Key ideas for wireless are
coverage and performance
To measure power, we can
measure absolute or relative
power
Absolute is compared to a
known scale
Relative is to another signal
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Units of Power and Comparison

Comparative units can help:
compare coverage areas for different signals
Measure gain or loss

Measure the change in power

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Units of Power and Comparison

Units of Power
(absolute)

Units of Comparison
(Relative)

watt (W)

decibel (dB)

milliwatt (mW)

dBi

dBm

dBd

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Watt
Basic unit of power
1 ampere of current at 1 volt

Volts x Amps
Ability to move/push/etc

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MilliWatt (mW)
1/1000 th of a watt
Most 802.11 equipment is measured in
milliwatts
Usually 1 to 100 mw

FCC may allow up to 1 W in some cases,

but it isnt usually needed except in point to
point.

Pg 70

Decibel (dB)
Base unit of comparison, not of power
Represents the difference between two
values
Compare the power of two transmitters
Compare the output of a transmitter and
received at the receiver
From the term bel
Bell Labs
10 to 1 ratio
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Decibel (dB)
Bels are logarithmic
Use the log10 to calculate

101=10

Log10(10)=1

102=100

Log10(100)=2

103=1000

Log10(1000)=3

104=10000

Log10(10000)=4
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Decibel (dB)
Decibels are 10 x a bel
bel=log10(P1/P2)
decibel= 10Xlog10(P1/P2)
No log math on the test!
We use decibels instead of watts as it is
easier to write in many cases.

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Decibel (dB)

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dBi
Antennas are compared to isotropic radiators
The difference between the theoretical isotropic
radiator and the actual antenna can be measures
in decibels isotropic (dBi)
Relative measurement
Change in power relative to an antenna
Measure of antenna gain

Measured at focus point

Always a gain, not a loss
No-gain or unity gain (0 dBi)

Think antenna Gain

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dBd
A second relative measure of strength
Decibel dipole
Decibel gain relative to a dipole antenna

Can also compare to dBi

Standard dipole is 2.14 dBi
If an antenna is 3 dBd the total is additive
2.14+3=5.14 dBi

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dBm
Absolute measurement
Decibels relative to 1 mw of power

So 100 mW= +20dBm

Can also calc from a dBm value
PmW=log-1(PdBm/10)
1 mW is reference and 0 dBm is 1 mW

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dBm
Why use dBm?
Easier to grasp -100dBm than .0000000001 mW

Also, the 6dB rule

If you double the distance between a received and
transmitter, the received signal will decrease by 6 dB.
Also, every 6dBi of gain will double the usable
distance of the RF signal

Also helps when adding units

If transmitter is +20dBm and the antenna is 5 dBi, the
EIRP is 25 dBm
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Inverse Square Law

The 6 dB rule is based on Isaac Newtons inverse square
law.
Change in power is equal to the
square of the change in distance
If you double the distance, the power will change by (2xD)2

FSPL = 36.6 + (20log10(f)) + (20log10(D))

FSPL = path loss in dB
f = frequency in MHz
D = distance in miles between antennas

FSPL = 32.4 + (20log10(f)) + (20log10(D))

FSPL = path loss in dB
f = frequency in MHz
D = distance in kilometers between antennas
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RF Math
No need for LOG on test.
Rules of 10s and 3s
Provide for approximate values

For every 3 dB of gain (relative), double the

absolute power (mW).
For every 3 dB of loss (relative), halve the
absolute power (mW).
For every 10 dB of gain (relative), multiply the
absolute power (mW) by a factor of 10.
For every 10 dB of loss (relative), divide the
absolute power (mW) by a factor of 10.
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RF Math
For every 3 dB of gain (relative), double
the absolute power (mW).
For example, if your access point is
configured to transmit at 100 mW and the
antenna is rated for 3 dBi of passive gain, the
amount of power that will radiate out of the
antenna (EIRP) will be 200 mW

Pg 77

RF Math
For every 3 dB of loss (relative), halve the
absolute power (mW).
Conversely, if your access point is configured
to transmit at 100 mW and is attached to a
cable that introduces 3 dB of loss, the amount
of absolute amplitude at the end of the cable
will be 50 mW

Pg 77

RF Math
For every 10 dB of gain (relative), multiply
the absolute power (mW) by a factor of 10.
In another example, if your access point is
configured to transmit at 40 mW and the
antenna is rated for 10 dBi of passive gain,
the amount of power that radiates out of the
antenna (EIRP) will be 400 mW

Pg 77

RF Math
For every 10 dB of loss (relative), divide
the absolute power (mW) by a factor of 10.
Conversely, if your access point is configured
to transmit at 40 mW and is attached to a
cable that introduces 10 dB of loss, the
amount of absolute amplitude at the end of
the cable will be 4 mW.

Pg 77

RF Math

dBm is a measure of power

dB is a unit of change
dB can be applied to dBm
So, if you have +10dBm and increase by 3
dB, you have +13 dBm

Pg 77

Step by Step Exercise

3
10

+
-

X 2
/ 10
dBm
0

mW
1

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RF Math Summary
Log Functions
dBm =10 log10(mW)
mW = log1 (dBm 10) = 10(dBm 10)

Rules of 10 and 3
3 dB gain = mW 2
3 dB loss = mW 2
10 dB gain = mW 10
10 dB loss = mW 10
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RF Math Summary

Pg 86

Received Signal Strength Indicator

(RSSI)

Receive sensitivity is the power level of an

RF signal required to be successfully
received by the receiver
The lower this level, the more sensitive the
receiver.
For 802.11 receive sensitivity is often
defined as a function of network speed
In order to use a certain speed, you must
have a certain level of loss
More loss, less speed.
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Sensitivity Thresholds

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Received Signal Strength Indicator

(RSSI)

802.11-2007 standard defines received

signal strength indicator as a relative
metric used to measure amplitude.
0 to 255

Usually mapped to receive sensitivity

thresholds in dBm

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Received Signal Strength Indicator

(RSSI)

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Received Signal Strength Indicator

(RSSI)

802.11-2007 also defines Signal Quality

(SQ)

Singal quality as it affects coding techniques

like barker or complementary code keying
Anything that affects bit error rate (BER) will
trigger SQ metrics

RSSI and SQ are often refered to together

as RSSI metrics
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Received Signal Strength Indicator

(RSSI)

Signal to Noise Ration (SNR) is not signal

quality

It is a measure of the difference between the

received signal and background noise (noise
floor)
Noise is -100 dBm and radio receives -85dBm
the SNR is 15 dB
25dB or greater is considered good

Vendors get to choose how to map RSSI

proprietary
Pg 88

Received Signal Strength Indicator

(RSSI)

Most vendors use RSSI for decisions on

roaming and dynamic rate switching
Roaming is when a client switches from
one AP to another
Dynamic Rate Switching is when 802.11
radios switch between data rates
Often due to reduced signal quality or loss

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Link Budget
Sum of all gains and losses from
transmitting radio, through the RF medium
to the receiver radio
Calculated to make sure the final received
signal is about the sensitivity threshold

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Link Budget
Link budget calculations include
original transmit gain
passive antenna gain
active gain from RF amplifiers.

All gain must be accounted for, including

RF amplifiers and antennas, and all losses
must be accounted for, including
attenuators, FSPL, and insertion loss.
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Link Budget
Loss in many places

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Link Budget

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Link Budget
Simpler example
+20 dBm + 5 dBi 73.98 dB + 2.14 dBi = 46.84 dBm

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Fade Margin/System Operating Margin

Level of desired signal above what is
required.
The buffer, or comfort zone
Plan for 10 to 25 dB above the receive
sensitivity

10 dB is minimum
Higher if more MILEs away

Fade Margin buffer is also known as the

System Operating Margin (SOM)
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