Data Storage

For any business to be successful , fast access

to information is critical . Information is
extracted from the existing data . Important
decisions are taken on the information .To get
the right information at the right time ; we
store data on a Computer System.This aids in
fast and easy access to information.
To store and manage data on a computer we
need a specialized computer program known
as Database Management System(DBMS).A
DBMS stores , process and retrieves data .

Database:A

Database
is
a
collection
i.e;
tables,views,indexes,stored procedure and triggers.The data
stored in a database may be related to any process such as
Inventory / Payroll System
RDBMS:A collection of related data. Some popular RDBMS
are:
Oracle Oracle Corporation
MS SQL 7.0
Microsoft Corporation
Sybase Sybase Inc.
Informix Informix Inc.
Ingress Ingress Inc.
DB/2
A Database which supports at least 6 Rules of 12 Rules of
Boyce-Codd called RDBMS otherwise DBMS

Entity Relationship Diagram

Its a technique which is used to represent the logical
structure of the database of a system.Its nothing but the
diagrammatic representation of database design.
What happens in real world ,when you want to construct a
house according to your specifications, you would approach
to a construction company .The architect would typically
interview you to understand your requirements.He draws
blue print according to your specifications, and, then
construction of the building starts.
Similarly , in a Software development environment , a
System Analyst will interview the client for all the project
specifications , draw the ER Diagram , and get it verified by
the client .If the diagram is as per requirements and fulfills
all the needs of client ,creation of the database and table will
follows.

An ER Diagram is like a blue print for

the databases.It consists of
following 3 elements:
It was introduced by
Entities
Peter Chen in 1976.
Relationships
Attributes
Sequence is:
Identify Entities->Attributes->Relationship

Entity:
An Entity is an object with distinct set of easily
identifiable properties.They are building blocks of a
database .An Entity can be any object,item,place,
concept or activity about which data can be stored
.In a diagramming technique entities are named and
represented by a BOX.

STUDENT

COURSE

GRADE

Entity Type: A set of things which share common

properties .For eg; STUDENT , COURSE,GRADE.Usually
denoted in UpperCase
Entity Instance(Example):Is
a specific individual ,
Instance(Example):
thing/objects.For eg; Deepu,Science .Usually denoted in
lower/mixed case.

Attributes:
An Attribute is a properties of the Entity.An
attribute instance is a particular property of an
individual entity instance.An attribute type is
property of an Entity type .For eg; male is an
attribute instance while SEX is an attribute
type.Attributes are depicted as ellipses,labeled
with name of the property.
REG_NO

ADDRESS

STUDENT

NAME

SEMESTER

TABLE:Entities are represented as table in a database .A

table is a arrangement of Rows and Columns.Attributes are
represented as column heading in a table and actual data about
the entity in rows .
RollNo

Name

Address

Phone

Reg_Date

R001

Arti

Dhanbad

NULL

10/02/2002

R002

Vivek

Kolkata

5619944

21/03/1990

R003

Preeti

Kolkata

5619944

05/10/1980

R004

Deepu

Lucknow

213456

05/05/1989

R005

Rani

Delhi

7639129

14/08/1997

RELATIONSHIPS

It is an association among entities .For eg: there is a

relationship between you and me (Student and
Instructor ).This relationship represents the fact that
an Instructor teaches several students.The name of
the relationship is Teaches.Relationship depicted
by a diamond ,with the name of the relationship
type.

INSRUCTOR

TEACHES

STUDENT

Types of Relationships
One to One:
One instance of an Entity can relate to only one instance
of related instance.For one Department ,there can be only
one Department Head.One Faculty cannot head more
than one Department.
RAJ

SALES

RAJA

COMPUTER

SIMRAN

FINANCE

DEEPU

MARKETING

RANI

PRODUCTION

DEPARTMENT

ONE

HEADED BY

ONE

CITY

ONE

SALE

ONE

ONE FACULTY MEM

SALESMAN

One to Many
One instance of an Entity can relate more than one
instance of related Entity.For eg; One Salesman can
sell in many cities.
SALESMAN

ONE

SALE

MANY CITY
Kolkata

RAJ

Mumbay
Dhanbad

SIMRAN

Chennai
Ranchi
Orissa

RANI

Delhi

Many to Many

More than one instance of an Entity can relate more

than one instance of its related Entity.For eg;Many
Salesman can sale in many city.
SALESMAN

MANY

SALE

MANY CITY
Kolkata

RAJ

Mumbay
Dhanbad

SIMRAN

Chennai
Ranchi
Orissa

RANI

Delhi

 After ER Diagram Entities are mapped to tables and

they are related using common Attribute
CITY
SALESMAN
CityCode
SCode
CName
Sname
SCode
Address
Attribute Naming Conventions:

Starts with Characters

Can use lower/uppercase
Can be upto 256 Characters
Embedded space not allowed

Keys

To ensure data integrity (Validation) so that the data in the database is valid and
correct,Keys play important role .The various types of keys are:

Candidate Key(Surrogate):An attribute or set attribute that uniquely

identifies a row.(If a column contain unique values).
StudId
S001
S002
S003
S004
S005

Name
Rajan
Deepu
Ajeet
Deepu
Vivek

City
Lucknow
Lucknow
Mujaffarpur
Delhi
Kolkata

Fees
56000
40000
67000
12000
25000

These columns contains unique values , so these are

Candidate Keys.

Primary Key
The candidate key which is used to uniquely
identify each row is called Primary Key.Here
StudId is Primary Key ,choosing Fees as a Primary
Key is meaningless as there is no sequence.

Alternate Key
The candidate key which is not chosen as Primary
Key is called Alternate Key.Here, Fees is a
Alternate Key.

Composite Key
When the key that uniquely identifies the rows of table
made up of more than one attribute .

CustId

ProdId

Qty

SaleDate

C122

P002

12

14/08/76

C134

P002

13

14/08/76

C122

P005

12

10/02/75

None of the columns contains unique values .

However , if we combine CustId and ProdId we get
unique value.So CustId+ProdId is Composite
Primary Key.

Foreign Key
When primary key of one table is also available as
an attribute in another table,it is called Foreign Key.
It is used to relate tables.
Referential Integrity:Ensuring that all the values in
Foreign key match with the Primary Key.
PRODUCTS
ProdId(PK)
Description
Qoh
Price

CUSTOMER
CustId
ProdId(FK)
Qty
OrderValue

SQL
It is the language used to access data within
Oracle databases.
Developed by IBM in mid 1970s.
Oracle Corporation introduced the first the
commercially available implementation of
SQL.
Abbreviation
of Structured Query
Language, pronounced as see quell is
made of three sub-languages such as:

 Data Definition language (DDL):

Consists of commands to create the objects like
CREATE,ALTER,DROP such as tables,views ,
indexes etc.

Data Manipulation Language(DML):

Used for query , Insertion,Deletion and
Updation of information stored in the
databases.

Data Control Language(DCL):

Used for controlling data and access to the
databases Example:Commit , Rollback

SQL *Plus

SQL *Plus is a software product from Oracle

Corporation that allows users to interactively use the
SQL commands , produce formatted reports and
support written command-procedures to access
Oracle databases.Through SQL * Plus user can:
Enter,edit,store,retrieve and run SQL commands
Format ,perform calculations on , store , and print
query results in the form of reports.
List column definition of any table.
Access and copy data between SQL databases.
Send messages to and accept responses from an
end user.

Starting SQL *Plus

Programs
Oracle-OraHome81
Application
Development
SQL Plus

Data Type:Type of data that is stored in a column.

These
are:
1)Char(size):Fixed-length character data ,size
character
long.Maximum
size
is
2000.
2)Varchar2(size):Variable length character string
having maximum of size bytes(upto 4000)
3)Number(size): Stores fixed and floating point
nos.
4)Date:
Stores
date
and
time.
5)Long: Can store up to 2 GB of characters.
6)Raw: Used to store graphics & sound etc.

Creating Table

Table is a Row and Column arrangement of data.

Tables are owned by the user who creates them
Name of table must be unique
Column names in a table must be unique
Column names can be duplicated across the tables
Table name must begin with a letter A-Z or a-z
It may contain letters, numbers and special characters
It may upto 30 characters long.
Must not be SQL reserved word
Names are not case-sensitive
Syntax:
Create table <table name>(
Column-name <datatype(size)>,
.);

Create table ItemMast

(
ITNO number(4),
Name varchar2(20),
QOH number(5),
Class char(1),
ROD date,
Rate number(8,2)
);
To see the structure of a table:
Desc[ribe] <table-name>

Inserting Values into a Table

Insert command is used to insert

rows in a table
Values can be inserted for all
columns or for selected columns
At a time single can be inserted
Syntax:
Insert into <table-name> (cols list)
values(..);

Inserting through Parameter Substitution

Parameter substitution provides an easier way to
enter data into a table .The & symbol is used as the
substitution operator.When a substitution operator is
used ,SQL *Plus prompts for the value of the
variable , accepts it and then substitutes it in place of
the variable.
insert into ItemMast values (&ITNO, '&Name',
&Qoh,&class','&ROD','&Rate')
Enter value for itno: 2
Enter value for name: Cinthol Int.
Enter value for qoh: 15
Enter value for class: B

 Enter value for rod: 19-May-2002

Enter value for rate: 15.76
old 1: insert into ItemMast values (&ITNO, '&Name, &Qoh, '&class','&ROD','&Rate')
New 1: insert into ItemMast values(2,'Cinthol Int.', 15 , 'B', '19-May-2002','15.76')

1 row created.

Alternatively we can use like:

insert into ItemMast values(&1,'&2',&3,'&4','&5',&6)
Enter value for 1: 4
Enter value for 2: XXX
Enter value for 3: 100
Enter value for 4: D
Enter value for 5: 02-Feb-2002
Enter value for 6: 100
Statement: insert into ItemMast values (&1, '&2', &3, &4', &5',&6)
Read As : insert into ItemMast values(4,'XXX',100,'D','02-Feb 2002',100)

1 row created.

Retrieve Information from Table

Select statement instruct the database to retrieve
information from a table.
Syntax:
Select <column list> from <table-name>
[where <condition>]
Select * from ItemMast;
To see list of tables created by the user:
Select * from TAB;

Alter Table

Tables can be altered in one of the three ways:

By adding a column to an existing table
By changing a columns definition
By droping column
Adding column to a table:
Alter table <table name> add(<col-name>
<datatype>);
alter table Employee add(Salary Number);
Any No. of columns can be added in single alter
command.

Changing Column Definition:

Alter table Employee modify(Salary Number(5) NOT
NULL);

Dropping Column of a table :

To drop a column use :
Syntex:
Alter table <tab-name> drop column <col-name>;
eg.
Alter table Employee drop column EmpAddress;

Creating table with Rows from Another

Table
Create table MyTable
As
Select * from ItemMast;
Creating with different Column
Headings:
Create table myTable(Name,Salary)
As
Select ename, sal from Employee;

Creating Temporary Table

Temporary tables are only for current
session , after session only structure of
table left in the database.
Create global temporary table MyTable
(
EmpId char(4),
EmpName varchar2(10)
);

Updating Column(s) of a Table

UPDATE command is used to update the

columns in the table.
Values of a single column or group of columns .
Updation can be carried out for all the rows in
the table or selected rows.
Syntax:
Update <Table-Name>
SET <column-name> = <value>
[where <condition>]
Update emp set comm=500;
Update emp set sal=sal+(sal*0.1);
Update emp set sal=sal+500 where EmpId=E005;

Deleting Rows from Table

DELETE command is used to delete rows

from a table.
The entire row is deleted from the table.
Specific column cannot be deleted from table
Syntax:
Delete from <Table-Name>
[where <condition>]
Delete from emp;
Delete from emp where job=Clerk;

Deleting Structure of a Table

To delete structure of table DROP command is
used.
Syntax:

DROP TABLE <Table-Name>;

Drop table emp;

Data Integrity
Enforcing data integrity ensures the quality of the data in
the database. For example, if an employee is entered
with an employee_id value of 123, the database should
not allow another employee to have an ID with the same
value. If you have an employee_rating column intended
to have values ranging from 1 to 5, the database should
not accept a value of 6. If the table has a dept_id column
that stores the department number for the employee, the
database should allow only values that are valid for the
department numbers in the company.
Two important steps in planning tables are to identify
valid values for a column and to decide how to enforce
the integrity of the data in the column. Data integrity
falls into four categories:

 Entity integrity
Domain integrity
Referential integrity
User-defined integrity
There are several ways of enforcing each type of integrity.

Entity:

PRIMARY KEY constraint

UNIQUE constraint

Domain

DEFAULT definition
FOREIGN KEY constraint
CHECK constraint
NOT NULL

Referential

FOREIGN KEY constraint

CHECK constraint

User-defined

All column- and table-level constraints in

CREATE TABLE
Stored Procedures
Triggers

 Entity Integrity:Entity integrity defines a row as a

unique entity for a particular table. Entity integrity
enforces the integrity of the identifier column(s) or
the primary key of a table (through indexes,
UNIQUE constraints or PRIMARY KEY
constraints).
Domain Integrity:Domain integrity is the validity
of entries for a given column. You can enforce
domain integrity by restricting the type (through
data types), the format (through CHECK constraints
), or the range of possible values (through
FOREIGN KEY constraints, CHECK constraints,
DEFAULT definitions, NOT NULL definitions).

 Referential Integrity:Referential integrity preserves the

defined relationships between tables when records are
entered or deleted. It is based on relationships between
foreign keys and primary keys or between foreign keys
and unique keys. Referential integrity ensures that key
values are consistent across tables. Such consistency
requires that there be no references to nonexistent values
and that if a key value changes, all references to it
change consistently throughout the database.When you
enforce referential integrity, SQL Server prevents users
from:
Adding records to a related table if there is no associated
record in the primary table.
Changing values in a primary table that result in
orphaned records in a related table.

Applying Constraints
They are part of table definition that are used to limit the
values entered into its columns
NOT NULL:Prevents column from accepting NULL values
UNIQUE:Ensures uniqueness of the values in a column
Primary Key:Same as Unique , but only one column
allowed per table
Check:Controls the value of a column(s) being inserted
Default:Assigns a default value for the column(s),at the
time of insertion when no value is given for that column
References:Used to relate two tables,maintains
Referential Integrity

 The constraints are declared at the time of creating

creating a table with CREATE Table command.
Constraint can be added to a table after its
creation .
All the the details of constraints are stored in Data
Dictionary.
Each constraint is assigned a name.It is easier if we
give user defined names so that it is easily
referenced ,otherwise the name is automatically
generated of the form :
SYS_Cn
Where n is unique number
The keyword CONSTRAINT allows us to name a
new constraint .All constraint names must be
unique.

 NOT NULL:
This constraint is placed immediately after
the datatype of a column .Any attempts to
put NULL values in that column will be
rejected .Columns without NOT NULL
constraint allow NULL values.
Create table ItemMast
(
ITNO number(4) NOT NULL ,
Name varchar2(20),
QOH number(5)
);

 UNIQUE:
This constraint ensures that the values entered into
the column are UNIQUE..
Create table ItemMast(
ITNO number(4) UNIQUE ,
Name varchar2(20),
QOH number(5));

Columns with Unique constraint allows NULL ,but if

we want to restrict the same , use NOT NULL along
with UNIQUE constraint
Create table ItemMast(
ITNO number(4) NOT NULL UNIQUE ,
Name varchar2(20),
QOH number(5));

We can also define a group of columns as UNIQUE

table constraint.Declaring a group of column as
UNIQUE , differs from declaring the individual
columns as unique
Create table ItemMast(
ITNO number(4) NOT NULL,
Name varchar2(20) NOT NULL,
QOH number(5),
UNIQUE(ITNO,Name));

Applying constraint Name:

Create table ItemMast(
ITNO number(4) NOT NULL constraint MYCons UNIQUE ,
Name varchar2(20),
QOH number(5));

 PRIMARY KEY:

This key also ensures unique values , but it differs

from UNIQUE as
it does not allow NULL
Only one Primary Key can be declared in a table.
It can also apply to multiple columns , forcing a unique
combination of values.
Create table ItemMast(
ITNO number(4) Primary Key,
Name varchar2(20) NOT NULL,
QOH number(5));

Create table ItemMast(

ITNO number(4),
Name varchar2(20),
QOH number(5),
PRIMARY KEY(ITNO,Name));

 CHECK:

This allows the user to define a condition ,that a

value entered into the table ,has to satisfy,before it
can be accepted.The CHECK Constraint consists of
the keyword CHECK followed by parenthesized
conditions.Any attempt to update or insert column
values that will make the condition false , will give
an error.
Create table ItemMast(
ITNO number(4) Primary Key,
Name varchar2(20) NOT NULL,
QOH number(5) CHECK (QOH >10));

Create table ItemMast(

ITNO number(4),
Name varchar2(20) Check (Name in (Lux,Cinthol,Denim)),
QOH number(5));

Create table ItemMast

(
ITNO number(4) Primary Key,
Name varchar2(20) NOT NULL,
QOH number(5) ,
Check ((Name=Lux and QOH
>=10) OR (Name=Cinthol and
QOH >=20))
);

 DEFAULT:
This is used insert a value in the column when
user is not entering any value for that column.

Create table ItemMast

(
ITNO number(4) Primary Key,
Name varchar2(20) Default Lux,
QOH number(5) ,
Check ((Name=Lux and QOH >=10)
OR (Name=Cinthol and QOH >=20))
);

REFERENCES:
A foreign key is a combination of columns with values with values
based on the primary key values from another table.A foreign key
constraint, also known as Referential Integrity Constraint ,
specifies that the values of the foreign key correspond to actual
values of the primary key in another table .
Create table ItemTran(
ITNO number(4) references ITEMMAST(ITNO),
TranType char(1) check (trantype in(I,R)),
TranDate date,
Qty number(5));
Create table ItemTran(
ITNO number(4),
TranType char(1) check (trantype in(I,R)),
TranDate date,
Qty number(5),
Foreign key(ITNO) references ITEMMAST(ITNO));

 ON DELETE CASCADE OPTION:

Using this option whenever a parent row is deleted then
all the corresponding child rows are deleted from the
detail table.This option is always used with FOREIGN
KEY.

Create table ItemTran(

ITNO number(4) references ITEMMAST(ITNO)
ON DELETE CASCADE,
TranType char(1) check (trantype in(I,R)),
TranDate date,
Qty number(5));

Querying Database Tables

The Select statement instructs the database to
retrieve information from table.
Syntax:
Select <column list> from <table-name>
[Where Condition>
[Group By Column Name(s)>]
[Having <condition>]
[Order by <expression>]
Examples:
Select * from emp;
Select EmpName,Salary from Emp;

Conditional Retrieval of Rows:

The Where clause is used along with the SELECT
statement to specify the condition ,based on which
the rows will be extracted from the table with
SELECT
The where clause is case-sensitive
Operators are used to specify conditions:
Relational Operators:
=,>,>=,<,<=,<>,!=

Logical Operators:
AND, OR ,NOT

Special Operators:
IN,BETWEEN,LIKE

Examples:
Select * from emp where deptno=20;
Select ename,sal from emp where sal>20;
Select empno,ename from emp where job= MANAGER
Select ename from emp where job=CLERK and
deptno=20;
Select ename from emp where job=CLERK or
job=ANALYST;
Select * from emp where hiredate <= 30-SEP-81;
Select ename from emp where job <> MANAGER
Select ename from emp where enpno in(7369,7521,7839);
Select * from emp where deptno NOT IN (10,20,30);
Select enam,sal from emp where sal between 1000 and 2000
Select ename from emp where hiredate not between 30JUN-81 and 31-DEC-81;

DISTINCT Clause :
DISTINCT clause is used with
select to suppress duplicate
values if any in a column.
SELECT DISTINCT job from
emp;

NULL values:
NULL values are not 0 or a blank.
It represents an unknown or inapplicable value.
It cannot be compared using the relational and /or
logical operators.
The special operator IS is used with the keyword
NULL to locate NULL values
Select ename from emp where deptno IS NULL;
Select ename from emp where deptno IS NOT
NULL;
Select * from emp where sal > 2000 and comm is
NULL;

Matching a pattern with a column

The LIKE operator is used.

It can only used with CHAR and VARCHAR2
% represents a sequence of zero or more characters
_ stands for single character
Examples:
Select ename from emp where ename like S%
Select ename from emp where ename like %S
Select ename from emp where ename like _____
Select ename from emp where ename like _I%

User friendly Column Headings

We can change the names of columns at
the time of select statement
Syntax:
Select <actual col-name> <user-def
name> from <table-name>
Select id EMPID from Employee
Select id as EMPID from Employee
Select ename, sal,sal*0.1 PF from emp

Ordering Results of a Query

SQL uses the ORDER BY clause to impose an order
on the result of a query.
ORDER BY clause is used with SELECT statement.
Syntax:
Select <col-list> from <table-name>
[Where condition]
[ORDER BY <columns>][ASC|DESC]

The order by clause orders(sorts) the query output

according to the values in one or more selected
columns.By default it orders in Ascending order.
ORDER BY must always be the last clause in the
SELECT statement.

Order BY contd
List the empno,ename, sal in ascending
order of salary
Select empno, ename, sal from emp order by sal;

List the Employee Name , salary,Job

and Dept No. is ascending order of
Department and then on descending
order of salary:
Select deptno, job, ename, sal from emp order by
DeptNo, Sal DESC;

Ordering output by Column Number

In place of column names,we can use
numbers to indicate the fields being
used to order the output.These
numbers will refer, not to the order of
the columns in the table, but to their
orders in the output.
Example:
Select empno, ename, sal from emp order by 3;

Aggregate Functions
Aggregate functions are used to
produce summarized results.
They operate on set of rows. They
return results based on groups .
By default all rows in a table are
treated as one group . The
aggregate functions produce a
single value for an entire group or
table.

 COUNT:
It determines the number of rows/ noNULL column values.If * is passed , then
the total number of rows is returned.
List the no. of employees working with the
company:
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp;
List no. of jobs available in the emp t able:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT job) from
emp;

 SUM:The sum function returns the sum of

values for the select list of columns.
Select Sum(sal) from emp;
MAX:This returns the maximum value of the
selected list of item.
Select
MAX(sal)
from
emp
where
job=Salesman;
MIN:This returns the minimum value of the
selected list of item.
Select MIN(sal) from emp where job=Salesman;
AVG:Returns the average of column values.
Select AVG(sal) from emp;

Grouping the Result of a Query

The Group By clause is used to divide the rows in a table
into smaller groups.
The Group By clause is used with SELECT clause
SQL groups the result after it retrieves the rows from the
table.
Conditional retrieval of rows from grouped result is
possible with the HAVING clause
Syntax:
Select <col-list> from <table>
[where condition]
GROUP BY <col>
[HAVING <condition>]

 List the department numbers and the number of

employees in each department
Select deptno,count(*) from emp GROUP BY deptno;
List the dep no. and the total salary payable in each
dept:
Select deptno,sum(sal) from emp group by deptno;
List the jobs and the number of employees in each
job.The result should be in descending order of the
number of employees:
Select job,count(*) from emp group by job
Order by 2 desc;
List the total salary maximum & minimum salary and
average salary of employees job wise:
Select job,sum(sal),avg(sal),max(sal),min(sal) from emp
group by job.

 List the average salary from each job

excluding managers:
Select job,AVG(sal) from emp
Where job!=MANAGER group by job
Groups within groups:
Group by clause can be used to provide
results for groups within groups.
List the average monthly salary for
each job type within department
Select deptno,job,avg(sal) from emp
group by deptno,job;

The HAVING Clause

HAVING clause is used to specify the condition on
Group By clause like Where Clause select is used
with SELECT.
List average salary for all departments employing
more than five people:
SELECT deptno,AVG(sal) from emp GROUP BY
deptno HAVING count(*) >= 5;

JOINS
Joins are used to combine
columns from different tables.
The connection between tables is
established through the where
clause.
Types of Joins:Equi Joins,
Cartesian Joins,Outer Joins, Self
Joins.

One of the most important features of SQL is the

ability to define relationships between multiple
tables and draw the information from them in
terms of these relationships , along within a
single command.With joins , the information
from any number of tables can be accessed.
To join two tables, the retrieval criteria will
typically specify the condition that a column in
the first table (which is defined as foreign key) is
equal to a column in the second table (which is
primary key referenced by the foreign key)A
joins where clause may contain additional
conditions.In a join , the table names are listed in
the from clause separated by commas.

Syntax

SELECT <select-list> from table1> , <table2> ,., <tableN>

Where <table1.col1>= <table2.col2> and
<table2.col3>= <tableN.colN>.
Additional conditions
<select-list>:set
<select-list>: of cols and expressions from
<table1> through <tableN>
<table1> through <tableN>: tables from which
column values are retrieved
<col1>through <colN>:the
<colN>: columns in <table1>
through <tableN> that are related
Addition conditions are optional query criteria

EQUI JOINS:
When two tables are joined together using equality
of values in one or more columns ,they make an
Equi Join.Table prefixes are utilized to prevent
ambiguity and the where clause specifies the
columns being joined.
Example:
List the employee numbers,names , department
numbers and the department name:
SELECT empno,ename,emp.deptno ,dname from
emp , dept
where emp.deptno=dept.deptno

Table Aliases
It can be very tedious to type the table names
repeatedly.Temporary labels(or aliases) can be
used in the FROM clause .These temporary
names are valid only for the current select
statement.Table aliases should also be specified in
the select clause.Table aliases should can be up to
30 character in length , but the shorter they are
better.
The advantage of using table aliases is that it
effectively speeds up the query
SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.deptno ,d.dname from emp
e, dept d

Where e.deptno=d.deptno

Cartesian Joins
When no join condition clause is specified in
WHERE clause, each row of one table
matches every row of the other table.This
results in a Cartesian product.
SELECT empno, ename, dname, loc from emp,
dept;
If the number of rows are 14 and 4 in emp and
dept tables respectively ,then the total number
of rows produced is 56.
Cartesian product is useful in finding out all the
possible combination of columns from different
tables.

Consider following tables and data present:

Tab1:Holds principal amount.
Tab2:Holds year and rate of interest .
Tab1
PRICIPAL

Tab2
YEAR

RATE

10

1000

11

2000

11.5

3000

12

Finding the possible combinations of calculation of

amount, a Cartesian join of Tab1 and Tab2 is
required.The formula for calculation of Amount is
Pricipal*(1+(rate/100))year
Select Principal, Year, Rate, Principal* POWER(1+
(rate/100),year) from TAB1,TAB2

Outer Joins
If there are any values in one table that do not have
corresponding value(s) in the other , in an equi join
that row will not be selected.Such rows can be
forcefully selected by using the outer join symbol(+)
. The corresponding columns for that row will have
NULLs.
Example:Display the list of employees working in
each department .Display the department
information even if no employee belongs to that
department:
SELECT empno, ename, emp.deptno, dname, loc from
emp, dept where emp.deptno(+) = dept.deptno;

Rules to place(+) operator

The outer join symbol(+)

can not be on both the
sides
It is possible between only
two tables

Self Join:
To join a table to itself means that each row of the table is
combined with itself and with every other row of the
table.The self join can be viewed as a join of two copies of
the same table .The table is not actually copied , but SQL
performs the command as though it were.
The syntax of the command for joining table to itself as
almost same as that for joining two different tables.To
distinguish the column names from one another , aliases
for the actual table name are used , since both the tables
have the same name .
Example:To list out the names of the manger with the
employee record one will have to join EMP with itself
Select Worker.ename,Manager.ename "Manager"
from emp Worker , emp Manager
where Worker.mgr=Manager.empno;

 List all employees who joined the company before

their manager
Select e.ename,e.hiredate,m.ename manager ,
m.hiredate
From emp e, emp m
WHERE e.mgr=m.empno
and e.hiredate< m.hiredate

 SET Operators :SET Operators are used to combine

information of similar type from one or more than one
table.
Datatype of corresponding columns must be the same
The types of SET Operators are:

UNION:Rows of the first query plus rows of the second query,

less duplicate rows
INTERSECT:Common rows from all the queries
MINUS :Rows unique to the first query

SET operator combine two or more queries into one result.

Suppose we want following three details from dept table
List of all the different designations in department 20 and 30
List the jobs common to department 20 and 30
List the jobs unique to department 20
To get these combination of information the SET operators UNION,
INTERSECT and MINUS are used.

UNION:
The union clause merges the outputs of two or
more queries into single set of rows and columns.
Syntax:
Select <stmt1>
UNION
Select <stmt2>
[Order BY clause]
Display the different designations in department 20 and 30

Select job from emp where deptno=20

UNION
Select job from emp where deptno=30

Points to kept in mind:

The two select statement may not contain an
ORDER BY clause,however the final result of the
entire UNION operator can be ordered
The no. of columns retrieved by the first select
must be equal to no. of cols. retrieved by the
second statement.
The data types of cols retrieved by the select
statement must be same
Select empno,ename from emp where deptno=20
UNION
Select empno,ename from emp where deptno=30
Order by 1

INTERSECT
The INTERSECT operator returns the rows that
are common between two sets of rows.
Syntax:
Select <stmt1>
INTERSECT
Select <stmt2>
[Order BY clause]
Display the jobs common to department 20 and 30

Select job from emp where deptno=20

INTERSECT
Select job from emp where deptno=30

MINUS:
The MINUS returns the rows unique to first query.
Syntax:
Select <stmt1>
MINUS
Select <stmt2>
[Order BY clause]
Display the jobs unique to department 20
Select job from emp where deptno=20
MINUS
Select job from emp where deptno=10
MINUS
Select job from emp where deptno=30

NESTED QUERIES
If we want List Employees belonging to department
of MILLER:
We have to use two query statements,first of all we
have to do determine the department number of
MILLER like:
SELECT deptno from emp where ename=MILLER;
Then we will use the the deptno to find out the other
Employees something like:
SELECT ename from emp where deptno=10;
We can combine the above two query statements into
single something like:
SELECT ename from emp where deptno=(SELECT
deptno from emp where ename=MILLER);
THIS IS NESTED QUERY i.e; Query inside another QUERY

SQL has an ability to nest queries within one another.A

subquery is a SELECT statement that is nested within
another SELECT statement and which returns
intermediate results .SQL first evaluates the inner
query (subquery) within the WHERE clause .The inner
query generates values that are tested in the predict of
the outer query ,determining when it will be true.The
return value of inner query is then substituted in the
condition of the outer query.

Advantages:
Subqueries allows a developers to build powerful
commands out the simple one.
The nested queries is very useful when you need
to select rows from a table with a condition that
depends on the data in the table itself.

 List the names of the employee drawing

the highest salary:
Select ename from emp where sal=(select
max(sal) from emp);
List all employee details whose salary is
greater than average salary of
employees whose hiredate is before 01APR-1981:
Select * from emp where sal > (select
avg(sal) from emp where hiredate <01APR-1981);

DISTINCT clause:
It use to force the query to return single
value.
Select * from dept where deptno=(select
distinct
deptno
from
emp
where
mgr=7698);
Subqueries that return more than one row:
List of employees, who earn lowest salary in
each department:
SELECT ename,sal,deptno from emp where
sal IN(SELECT MIN(sal) from emp group
by deptno);

Points to be kept in MIND

The inner query must enclosed in
parenthesis
The inner query must be on the right hand
side of the condition.
The subquery may not have an order by
clause .
The ORDER BY clause appears at the end
of the main SELECT statement.
Subqueries are always executed from the
most deeply nested to the least deeply
nested.

Correlated SubQuery: A correlated subquery is a

nested subquery which is executed for each
candidate row considered by the main query and
which on execution uses a value from the column of
the outer query.
In a correlated subquery , the column value used in
inner sub query refers to the column value present in
the outer query forming a correlated query .The
subquery is executed repeatedly , one for each row of
the main (outer) query table.
Employees earn salary greater than the average salary for their dept:
SELECT empno,ename,sal,deptno from emp e where sal >(select AVG(sal)
from emp where deptno=e.deptno);

Correlated subquery is used to answer multi-part questions whose

answer depends on the value of each row of the parent
query.The inner select is normally executed once for each
candidate row.

Special Operators in Subqueries

EXISTS:
Used to check the existence of values
Produces Boolean result
ANY,SOME and ALL:
Used along with relational operators
Similar to IN ,but only used in subqueries
The SOME and ANY can be used interchangeably

EXISTS:
List all employees who have at least one person
reporting to them:
SELECT empno,ename,job,deptno from emp e where
EXISTS
(select
empno
from
emp
where
emp.mgr=e.empno);
List the employee detail if any and only if more than 2
employees are present in department number 10:
Select * from emp where deptno= 10 and EXISTS ( select
count(*) from emp where deptno=10 GROUP BY deptno
HAVING COUNT(*) > 2);
List all employees details who do not manage any one:
SELECT ename,job from emp e WHERE NOT EXISTS
(Select mgr from emp where mgr=e.empno);

 ANY Operator:It

compares the lowest

value from the set

List the employee names whose salary is greater
than the lowest salary of an employee belonging
to department number 20:
SELECT ename from emp where sal > ANY(select
sal from emp where deptno=20);
List the employee details of those employee
whose salary is greater than any of the managers:
SELECT empno,ename,sal from emp where sal >
ANY(select
sal
from
emp
where
JOB=manager);

 ALL Operator: In case of ALL operator the

predicate is true if every value selected by the
subquery satisfies the condition in the predicate of
the outer query.
Example:
List the employee names whose salary is greater than
the highest salary of all employee belonging to
department number 20:
Select ename from emp where sal > ALL (select sal
from emp where deptno=20);

FUNCTIONS
They are used to manipulate data items.
Advantages:
Perform complex calculations on data
Can modify individual data items
Can very easily manipulate output for group of
rows.
Can alter date format for display
Types:
Single Row Function(Column Function)
Group Function

DUAL TABLE
DUAL table is a table with only one row
and column in it.It is owned by SYS
and can be accessed by all users.It
contains one column, DUMMY and one
row with value X.The DUAL table is
useful to return a value only once-for
instance , the value of a constant ,
psuedo_column or expression that is not
derived from a table with user data.
Desc DUAL;

 Column Functions:As they work on columns.

They are:
Arithmetic Functions:
ABS(n):Returns absolute value of the column or
values passed
SELECT ABS(-65) from dual;
CEIL(n):Finds the smallest integer greater than
or equal to n.
Select CEIL(89.9) from dual;
FLOOR(n):Finds the largest integer less than or
equal to n.
Select FlOOR(89.9),CEIL(89.9) from DUAL;

 MOD(m,n):Returns the remainder of m divided by n ; or

m if n=0
SELECT MOD(200,30) from dual;
POWER(m,n):Returns m raised to power n
Select power(2,2) from DUAL;
SIGN(n): Returns 1 if n is negative, it returns 1 if n is
positive and it returns 0 if n is 0.
Select sign(-1) from dual;
SQRT(n):Returns square root of n.
Select sqrt(81) from dual;
trunc(m,[n]):This truncates the m or column to n decimal
places .If n is omitted then it is truncated to no decimal
places.If n is negative then numbers left of decimal places
are truncated to 0;
Select trunc(90.723,1), trunc(90.723,-1), trunc(90.723) from
dual

 ROUND(m,[n]):This rounds the m or column to

n decimal places .If n is omitted then it is
rounded to no decimal places.If n is negative then
numbers left of decimal places are rounded to 0;
Select
round(90.723,1),
round(90.723,-1),
round(90.723) from dual;
EXP(n):This returns e raised to the nth power.
Select exp(4) from DUAL;

Character Functions
Working with characters
CHR(x):Returns the character given to character number
Select chr(65) from DUAL;
ASCII(x):Returns the ASCII value of given character
Select ASCII(A) from DUAL;
CONCAT(str1,str2):Returns str1 concatenated with str2.
Select concat(Anu,Rag) from DUAL;
INITCAP(string):Capitalize the first character of each
word in the string.
Select initcap(anurag) from dual;
LOWER(string):Converts string to lower case.
SELECt lower(ANU) from DUAL;

 UPPER(string):Converts string to upper case.

Select upper(anu) from DUAL;
LPAD(char1,n[,char2]):This fills(pads) the column
value from left , to a total width of n characters
positions.The leading spaces are filled with char2.If
string is omitted value is padded with spaces.
Select lpad(dname,15,$),lpad(dname,15, ) , dname
from dept;
RPAD(char1,n[,char2]):This fills(pads) the column
value to the right , to a total width of n characters
positions.The trailing spaces are filled with char2.If
string is omitted value is padded with spaces.
Select rpad(dname,15,$),rpad(dname,15, ) , dname
from dept;

 LTRIM(string,char/s):Removes all blank spaces from

the left .If char/s is specified it removes from the left
leading occurrences of char.
Select dname,LTRIM(dname),LTRIM(dname,R) from
DEPT;
RTRIM(string,char/s):Removes trailing occurrence(s)
of all blank spaces .If char/s is specified it removes from
the right trailing occurrences of char.
Select dname,RTRIM(dname),RTRIM(dname,S) from
DEPT;
REPLACE(string,search_str[,replace_str]):This
returns
string with every occurrence of search_str replaced with
replace_str.If replace_str is not specified, all occurrences
of search_str are removed.
Select replace(This and That,Th,B) from dual;
Select replace('This and That','Th') from dual;

 SUBSTR(string,m[,n]):Returns substring, n
characters long from the string specified, starting
at position number m .If n is not specified the
string is extracted from position m to end.
Select
dname
,
SUBSTR(dname,2,4)
,
SUBSTR(dname,4) from dept;
TRANSLATE(string,from_str,to_str):This
returns string with all occurrences of each
character in from_str replaced by corresponding
character in to_str.
select
translate(abcdefghij,abcdef,123456)
from dual;
select translate('abcdefghij','abcdefghij','123456')
from dual;

 INSTR(string,char):Returns position of first

occurrence of char in string.
Select dname,instr(dname,e) from dept;
LENGTH(string):Returns length of string.
Select length(Anu) from dual;

Date Functions

They are used to manipulate date.All date

function returns a value of DATE data type
except MONTHS_BETWEEN which returns a
numeric value.
SYSDATE:It is a psuedo-column that returns the
current date and time of type DATE.The
SYSDATE can be used just as any other column
name.
SELECT SYSDATE from DUAL;
ADD_MONTHS(d,n):Adds or subtracts to or
from a date.Returns date as result
Select hiredate , add_months(hiredate,4) ,
add_months(hiredate,-4) from emp;

Click Me for Date Format

Select to_char(14-AUG-96,RM) from DUAL;
SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('12-APR-71 13:21:00 , 'DDMON-YY HH24:MI:SS'),'HH:MI') FROM DUAL

 ROUND(d[,format]):Rounds date d to the unit

specified by format.If format is not specified, it defaults
to DD,which rounds d to the nearest day.
Select round(to_date(14-AUG-76),MM) from Dual;
TRUNC(d[,format]):This function returns the date d
truncated to the unit specified by format.If format is
not specified, it defaults to DD,which truncates to the
nearest day.
Select trunc(to_date(14-AUG-76),MM) from Dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN(d1,d2):Returns number of
months between two dates,d1 and d2.If d1 is later than
d2,the result is positive,if d1 is earlier than d2 ,the
result is negative.The output will be a number.
Select months_between(02-FEB-02,02-AUG-02),
months_between(02-AUG-02,02-FEB-02) from dual;

 LAST_DAY(d):Returns the date of the last day of

the month specified.The result will be a date.
SELECT sysdate,last_day(sysdate) from dual;
NEXT_DAY(date,day):Returns the date of next
specified day of the week after the date.
SELECT sysdate,next_day(sysdate) from dual;
TO_CHAR(d,f):this function converts the date d to
character format f.
SELECT sysdate,TO_CHAR(sysdate,DAY) from
dual

GENERAL FUNCTIONs

GREATEST(expr1[,expr]):This returns the greatest

expression of its arguments.
Select greatest(10,7,-1) from dual;
LEAST(expr1[,expr]): This returns the least value
in the list of expressions.
Select least(10,7,-1) from dual;
NVL(col,value):The columns with NULL values are
ignored in all of the group functions such as SUM,AVG
etc.Also in arithmetic expression ,if the column contains
NULL ,will not provide any useful information.The NVL
function helps in substituting a value in place of a
NULL.The data type of the value to substituted must
match with col data type
Select
ename,sal,comm,sal+comm
GROSS
,sal+NVL(comm,0) New Gross from emp;

 TRANSLATE(char,find,new):This
function
returns
char with each find changed to new.All occurrences
of find are replaced with corresponding character in
new.If corresponding new character is not supplied,then
find char is removed.
Select dname,translate(dname,e,l) from dept;
DECODE(C,V1,S1,V2,S2,,D):This function does a ifthen-else.A default value can also be specified with
DECODE function,which is substituted,in case nothing
matches from the set.C which is either column or
expression is compared to each V and substitutes S if
C equals the search value.If no match is found , the
DECODE function returns the D which is default
value.If default value is omitted ,NULL is returned for
unmatched values.
Select ename , job , DECODE(job,CLERK,EXEC,
MANAGER,RM,job) from emp;

 UID:this returns an integer that uniquely identifies

the current database user.It takes no arguments.
SELECT UID from dual;
User:this returns a VARCHAR2 value containing
the name of the current Oracle user.USER takes no
arguments.
SELECT USER from dual;

 SEQUENCES A sequence is database

object used to generate unique integers for
use as primary keys.

Syntax:
Create SEQUENCE <seq-name> INCREMENT by <n>]
Start with <m>]
MAXVALUE N|NOMAXVALE]
MINVALUE N|NOMINVALUE]
Where:
<seq-name> name of sequence
<n> increment specified by user
Start with number with which the sequence will begin
MINVALUE lower bound
MAXVALUE upper bound

 CREATE SEQUENCE empnumber

INCREMENT BY 1 START WITH 1;

Generating Sequence Numbers:

A pseudo column NEXTVAL is used:
Select empnumber.NEXTVAL from dual;

Use in table:
create table checking
(id number(5),name varchar2(10));
insert into checking values( empnumber.NEXTVAL , 'Anu');

select * from checking;

Output: ID NAME
--------- ---------1
Anu

 insert
into
checking
values( empnumber.NEXTVAL , Dipti');
select * from checking;
Output:
ID NAME
--------- ---------2 Dipti

Checking Current Value :

The pseudo column CURRVAL is used for this
purpose.It tells the last value.
Select empnumber.CURRVAL from dual;

To see list of SEQUENCES created by user:

Select * from USER_SEQUENCES;

 Altering SEQUENCES:
Alter SEQUENCE <seq-name> INCREMENT by <n>]
MAXVALUE N | NOMAXVALE]
MINVALUE N | NOMINVALUE]
ALTER SEQUENCE empnumber INCREMENT BY 2;
NOTE:This alter sequence command will not affect the
sequence number created earlier.Only future sequence
numbers are affected by the ALTER SEQUENCE
statement.START WITH value cannot be changed using
ALTER .The sequence must be dropped and recreated in
order to restart a sequence at different number.
Removing SEQUENCES:
Drop sequence <seq name>
Drop sequence empnumber;