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3.1
Inspection Techniques
3.2
Instrumentation
3.3
Typical Applications
3.4
Special Example
Coil Configurations
voltmeter
voltmeter
oscillator
oscillator
voltmeter
~~
oscillator
Zo
excitation
coil
excitation
coil
coil
sensing coil
testpiece
testpiece
differential coils
parallel
coaxial
rotated
exciter coil
Remote Field
Near Field
sensing coil
Remote Field
ln(Hz)
low frequency operation (10-100 Hz)
1
f r 0
H z H z 0 e z /
z
Signal
Signal
single-frequency
Time
Time
frequency-multiplexed multiple-frequency
Signal
Signal
pulsed
Time
Time
D l 2
Signal
ferromagnetic phase
(ferrite, martensite, etc.)
B
Time
nonlinear harmonic analysis
Signal
Time
Single-Frequency Operation
Vr
oscillator
90 phase
shifter
driver
amplifier
driver
impedances
Vq
low-pass
filter
A/D
converter
low-pass
filter
Vm
processor
phase
balance
V-gain
H-gain
probe coil(s)
Vm Vs cos(t s ),
Vr Vo cos(t ),
Vq Vo sin(t )
1
Vs Vo cos(s ) cos(2t s )
2
1
Vs Vo sin(s ) sin(2t s )
2
V
Vm Vr o Vs cos(s ),
2
V
Vm Vq o Vs sin(s )
2
display
oscillator
n divider
90 phase
shifter
driver
amplifier
driver
impedances
Vq
Vm
low-pass
filter
A/D
converter
low-pass
filter
processor
phase
balance
V-gain
H-gain
probe coil(s)
V
Vm Vr o Vsn cos(sn )
2
Vq Vo sin( nt )
V
Vm Vq o Vsn sin(sn )
2
display
frequency range*
0.1 10 MHz
0.1-80 MHz
probe coil
relative accuracy
0.1-0.2%
0.05-0.1%
frequency scanning
manual
electronic
measurement time
*high-frequency application
Probe Considerations
sensitivity
ferrite-core coil
air-core coil
high coupling
low coupling
high coupling
high coupling
eddy current
eddy current
high coupling
eddy current
thermal stability
I2
I1
V ZI
V
Z i L* Rwire
V1
V2
V1 Z11
V Z
2
12
Z 12
I1
Z I
22
2
*
Z12 i L12
11
12 , 21
22
topology
3.3.1 Conductivity
1
Titanium, 6Al-4V
Normalized Reactance
0.8
Inconel
Stainless
Steel, 304
0.6
Copper 70%,
Nickel 30%
0.4
Lead
0.2
Copper
Magnesium, A280
Nickel
Aluminum, 7075-T6
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Normalized Resistance
0.4
0.5
60
Conductivity [% IACS]
2014
2024
6061
7075
50
T0
T0
40
T6
T72
T6
30
T6
T8
T0
T0
T73
T76
T4
T3 T4
T3 T4
20
Various Aluminum Alloys
T6
magnetic field
probe coil
specimen
Normalized Reactance
1.0
0.8
lift-off
curves
0.6
0.4
conductivity
(frequency)
curve
0.2
0
0
eddy currents
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Normalized Resistance
Normalized Reactance
= s
3
= 0
Normalized Resistance
0.5
Lift-Off Curvature
inductive
(low frequency)
lift-off
=0
=s
lift-off
=0
2
conductivity
Vertical Component.
Vertical Component.
=s
capacitive
(high frequency)
conductivity
Horizontal Component
Horizontal Component
8 mm diameter
1.5 %IACS
Instrument Calibration
conductivity spectra comparison on IN718 specimens of
different peening intensities
Nortec 2000S, Agilent 4294A, Stanford Research SR844, and UniWest US-450
3.3.2 Permeability
Magnetic Susceptibility
paramagnetic materials with small ferromagnetic phase content
moderately high susceptibility
low susceptibility
1.0
4
r = 4
permeability
2
1
1
0
frequency
(conductivity)
Normalized Reactance
Normalized Reactance
permeability
0.8
lift-off
0.6
frequency
(conductivity)
0.4
0.2
0
1.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Normalized Resistance
0.5
Magnetic Susceptibility
101
SS304L
SS302
SS304
100
10-1
10-2
SS305
10-3
IN718
IN625
IN276
10-4
0
10
20
30
Cold Work [%]
40
50
60
thinning
lift-off
0.6
0.4
thick
plate
0.2
f = 0.05 MHz
f = 0.2 MHz
f = 1 MHz
0.8
Re { F }
Normalized Reactance
aluminum ( = 46 %IACS)
0.6
0.4
F ( x ) e x / e i x /
0.2
thin
plate
0
-0.2
0
0.6
2
Depth [mm]
Thickness Correction
Vic-3D simulation, Inconel plates ( = 1.33 %IACS)
ao = 4.5 mm, ai = 2.25 mm, h = 2.25 mm
Conductivity [%IACS]
1.4
1.3
thickness
1.0 mm
1.5 mm
2.0 mm
2.5 mm
3.0 mm
3.5 mm
4.0 mm
5.0 mm
6.0 mm
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.1
1
Frequency [MHz]
10
Non-conducting Coating
probe coil, ao
non-conducting
coating
t
d
conducting substrate
ao > t, d > , AECL = + t
ao = 4 mm, simulated
63.5 m
50.8 m
38.1 m
25.4 m
19.1 m
12.7 m
6.4 m
0 m
1
10
100
Frequency [MHz]
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
0.1
AECL [m]
lift-off:
AECL [m]
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
0.1
ao = 4 mm, experimental
1
10
100
Frequency [MHz]
Conducting Coating
probe coil, ao
conducting
coating
z = e
z
Je
e s
2
1
AECC( f ) e
2 f
s s
( z ) AECC
4 z2
s s
analytical:
numerical:
uniform
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0.001
0.1
10
1000
Frequency [MHz]
1.2
AECC Change [%]
Gaussian
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0.001
0.1
10
1000
Frequency [MHz]
Impedance Diagram
1
Normalized Reactance
0.8
conductivity
(frequency)
lift-off
0.6
crack
depth
0.4
flawless
material
2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Normalized Resistance
0.5
probe coil
crack
1
-10% threshold
Normalized AECC
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
semi-circular crack
detection
threshold
2
3
Flaw Length [mm]
Ti-6Al-4V, 0.026-crack
Crystallographic Texture
J E
generally anisotropic
J1 1 0
J 0
2
2
J 3 0 0
J1
J
2
J 3
0 E1
0 E
2
3 E3
1 0
0 2
0 0
0
0
E1
E
2
E3
cubic (isotropic)
J1
J
2
J 3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
E1
E
2
E3
x1
x3
basal plane
x2
surface plane
1 2
n () 1 cos 2 2 sin 2
m () 1 sin 2 2 cos 2
M 2
a () [1 sin 2 2 (1 cos 2 )]
1.05
1.40
1.04
1.38
Conductivity [%IACS]
Conductivity [%IACS]
1.03
1.02
1.01
1.00
1.36
1.34
1.32
1.30
heat-treated, coarse
40 MHz acoustic
Inhomogeneity
AECC Images of Waspaloy and IN100 Specimens
inhomogeneous Waspaloy
homogeneous IN100
3 % relative variation
AECC [%IACS]
1.44
1.42
1.40
1.38
1.36
1.34
1.32
1.30
0.1
1
Frequency [MHz]
no (average) frequency dependence
10
1500
1000
500
0
10 2
endurance
limit
increased
life time
10 4
10 6
Fatigue Life [cycles]
108
Surface-Enhancement Techniques
Laser Shock Peening (LSP)
200
50
40
Cold Work [%]
-200
-400
Ti-6Al-4V
SP Almen 4A
SP Almen 12A
LSP
LPB
-600
-800
-1000
0.2
0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]
1.0
Ti-6Al-4V
SP Almen 4A
SP Almen 12A
LSP
LPB
30
20
10
1.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]
1.0
1.2
Piezoresistive Effect
parallel, normal, circular
F
1 / 0
11
/
2
0
12
3 / 0
12
12
11
12
12
12
11
1 / E
2 / E
3 / E
a / 0
11 12
ip / E
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1.403
1.402
1.401
1.4
1.399
1.398
1.397
Time [1 s/div]
IN 718, parallel
Conductivity [%IACS]
ip
Electroelastic Tensor:
Time [1 s/div]
Material Types
Al 2024
Ti-6Al-4V
0.004
parallel
normal
0.002
parallel
normal
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.004
-0.002
-0.004
-0.001
-0.004
-0.001
0.002
0.002 0.004
0.001 0.002
0.001 0.002
ua / E
ua / E
ua / E
Waspaloy
IN718
Copper
0.004
parallel
normal
0.002
0.004
parallel
normal
0.002
0.004
0.002
0.002
0.004
parallel
normal
0.004
Al 7075
parallel
normal
-0.002
-0.002
-0.002
-0.004
-0.002
-0.004
-0.002
-0.004
-0.001
0.002 0.004
ua / E
0.002 0.004
ua / E
0.001 0.002
ua / E
Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A
-1000
-1500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]
30
10
0
0.8
500
50
40
-500
Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A
-1000
-1500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]
Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A
20
0.2
1
0
-1
0.1
0.8
30
Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A
20
Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A
1
Frequency [MHz]
10
10
0.8
0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]
40
-500
-2000
3
Conductivity Change [%]
-2000
50
500
0.2
0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]
0.8
2
1
Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A
0
-1
0.1
1
Frequency [MHz]
before (solid circles) and after full relaxation for 24 hrs at 900 C (empty circles)
10
0.6
intact
300 C
350 C
400 C
450 C
500 C
550 C
600 C
650 C
700 C
750 C
800 C
850 C
900 C
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.16
0.25
0.4
0.63
1.6
2.5
6.3
Frequency [MHz]
The excess apparent conductivity gradually vanishes during thermal relaxation!
10
20
1.2
200
eddy current
XRD
.
Residual Stress [MPa]
15
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
10
-400
-600
-800
-1000
0.0
-0.2
0.01
-200
XRD
eddy current
-1200
0.1
1
Frequency [MHz]
10
0.0
0.5
1.0
Depth [mm]
1.5
-1400
0.0
0.5
1.0
Depth [mm]
1.5