Fundamentals of Petroleum

Exploration
GE3244

What is petroleum exploration?

Its the science of understanding the formation,
exploration and extraction of oil & gas.
Its the upstream side of the petroleum industry
The downstream side is the transport,
refining and marketing of petroleum products

Fundamentals of Petroleum
Exploration
Lesson plan

Introduction
Overview of Petroleum Exploration
Origin of Gas, Oil

Fundamentals of Petroleum
Exploration: introduction
Lecturer: Dr Grahame Oliver geogo@nus.edu.sg. Office AS2-04-17
Lecturer: Dr Sandeep Kundu geosnk@nus.ed.sg. Office AS3-03-11
(Dr Kundu will give the 1st lecture, Dr Oliver the rest)
Dr Olivers CV: BSc Sheffield, PhD Otago, Post-docs Univ Cambridge
& Dublin Ireland, Taught at Univ of Otago, Univ St Andrews,
Univ London Ontario Canada,Curtin Univ Perth Australia.
Research work in New Zealand, UK, Ireland, Norway, Italy, Canada,
Poland, Brazil, Agentina, Namibia, Zimbabwe,
Malaysia, Singapore, Switzerland, Spain, Italy,
USA, Nepal, India, Australia, Thailand
Present research interests include the geodynamic evolution of the
Himalaya, Myanmar river capture. Nuclear Power in metropolitan areas.
Geothermal and groundwater concepts for Singapore. Geology of Singapore
I support Arsenal FC

Fundamentals of Petroleum
Exploration
GE3244
Description:
The existence of commercial deposits of oil and gas depends on
geological conditions. These include the presence of a source rock, a
reservoir rock and a geological structure to migrate trap and concentrate
hydrocarbons.
This module focuses on the sedimentary cycle and its significance for
understanding the subsurface environments in which hydrocarbon
resources accumulate. The module provides a useful introduction to
geological information used by the upstream petroleum
industry.

Fundamentals of Petroleum
Exploration
GE3244
Learning Outcomes:
This module provides student with a glimpse of this world of geoscience
in action. This will provide students with an appreciation of the kind
of skills and activities employed in the upstream petroleum industry, an
increasing important sector in Singapore.
The lectures and seminars will focus on introducing topics including
sedimentology, carbonate systems and reservoir structure. This is
supported through practical exercises in geological map interpretation and
seismic survey.
Its the science of exploring for
and extracting oil and gas.

60% Continual Assessment

2 individual assessments (10 + 10%)
1 group presentation/report (10 + 20%)
Mid-semester test Week 7 (10%)
40% End of Semester Examination
Lectures and Lab/Tutorials are compulsory
Saturday Excursion in Week 6 (Sept 20th) is not compulsory BUT you are
strongly advised to attend as this will greatly add to your knowledge and
experience and help you in the lab/tuts and exam
The Saturday afternoon excursion is a 2 hour examination of the
petroleum system in outcrops on Sentosa.
This will be run in groups of ~30: details to be announced

Each Lecture and Lab Power Pt summary will normally be posted

on the IVLE by the Monday before each lecture. Each lecture
will be recorded for Webcast and made available soon after.

GE3244 Syllabus and timetable for 2014 (See IVLE)

Week 1: Introduction-Origin of petroleum (Dr Sandeep Kundu)
Week 2: Migration, traps, seals and reservoirs (Dr Grahame Oliver for Weeks 2 till
12)
Week 3: More traps. Exploration, drilling, logging. Lab/Tut : Seismic interpretation*.
Week 4: Wireline logging, stratigraphy and sedimentology.
Week 5: Sandstones and shales. Lab/tut Sedimentary Rocks*
Week 6: Limestones. Allocation of Group Presentations/Individual Reports.
Optional excursion to Sentosa, afternoon of 20th Sept.
RECESS WEEK
Week 7: Sedimentary basins. Mid-semester test 1st Oct during lecture. Lab/tut:
Preparation for Group Presentations.
Week 8: Reservoir appraisal.
Week 9: Petroleum production. Lab/Tut: Group Presentations to Class.*
Week 10: No lecture: Deepavali Public Holiday.
Week 11: Oil and Gas in SE Asia. Lab/Tut: Map Interpretation*
Week 12:The future for petroleum.
Week 13: SEAPEX Oil Barrel Prize: Final preparation of Individual Reports*. Hand
in Individual Reports by the end of Week 13.
*assessed
Lects in LT 10, 18.00 till 19.35 hrs. Labs in AS2-0204 Earth Lab, odd Weeks

Minor in Petroleum
Exploration
Minor in Petroleum Exploration
The Minor in Petroleum Exploration would appeal to students who are interested
in the upstream petroleum industry. Singapore is the world class hub for the
petroleum industry in Southeast Asia. Starting in 2008, the Southeast Asian
Exploration Society (SEAPEX) funded a Visiting Senior Fellow to teach the
geosciences in NUS. According to a survey in Nature (13th May 2011, Earth
Works, (473):243-244), there will be 13,000 unfilled petroleum geosciences jobs
in the USA by 2030.

Minor in Petroleum
Exploration
By 2018 there will be a 28% increase in geosciences jobs compared to
2008, 35 % if retirements are included. These trends will undoubtedly
be followed in Southeast Asia. Salaries for recent graduate petroleum
geoscientists are among the highest (American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, Explorer April, 2012).

Minor in Petroleum
Exploration
Therefore, NUS has introduced a new Minor in Petroleum Exploration (with
funding from SEAPEX and the Singapore Economic Development Board). A
student who wishes to graduate with a Minor in Petroleum Exploration will
take their normal 1st year foundation modules. In the 2nd, 3rd or 4th year they
will elect to take modules such as GE3244 Fundamentals of Petroleum
Geoscience, GE2230 Energy Futures, GE3243 Sediments and Sedimentary
Basins, GE3243 Applied Petroleum Exploration

SO SIGN UP NOW!!

SEAPEX

Give completed form to Dr Oliver next week

SEAPEX Oil Barrel Prize (SGD 2,000)

Download the application form from the IVLE GE3244 workspace site

Our style of lecturing:

Two- way Socratic method: learn through questions and
answers: students are allowed to question their lecturers
and have the freedom to think rightly of wrongly without
inhibitions.
lots and lots of PPts
lots of new concepts

too much to
write down

COME PREPARED!!!
Bring your laptops.
Or print out the PPt summary the day before.
Annotate it during the lecture. Listen again to the Webcast.
Use the internet to expand on your notes.
Look up highlighted terms.
Ask questions in the Lab or Email them.
Please dont come to my office without an appointment.

Textbooks
Wicander, R and Monroe, E. 2009. Essentials of Physical Geology. 5 th edition.
This is a good introduction to geology but has very little on petroleum.
Hyne, N.J. 2002. Nontechnical guide to petroleum geology, exploration, drilling
and production. 2nd edition. A suitable introduction. .
Selley, R. 1998. Elements of petroleum geology. 2nd edition. A suitable
introductionrather out of date.
Fraser, J. et al. 1997. Petroleum Geology of Southeast Asia.
Read the chapter on Lake basins
Best textbook is the references given to topics in Wikipedia!

What text book?

Essentials of
Physical Geology
5th Edition
Reed Wicander
James S. Monroe
academic.cengage/com/earthsci
ISBN-13:978-0495-55507-0
Available from the Bookstore,
under the Central Library $48.5

See also lecture Power Point

Presentations for XD3103
on the IVLE (Integrated Virtual
Learning Environment)

Overview of Petroleum Geoscience

When did it all start?

When did it all start? 3000 B.C. oil seeps near Bagdad(!)
1854: George Bissell engaged Prof Silliman (Yale)
to report on the potential of Pennsylvanian oil
as an illuminant to compete with candle wax ete..
Edwin Drake's discovery in Titusville (pop 125)
Pennsylvania in 1859. Drake used a steam
engine to drive a punching tool to 21 m below
the surface where he struck oil.
Rapid development followed in other parts of
the USA, Canada, Mexico, and then Venezuela
1878, Romania in 1860, Iran 1908, Iraq 1923,
Bahrain 1932, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in 1938.
16 US cents a gallon!
The USA led in production until the 1960s, when the Middle East out-produced
other areas.
In 1961 the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
was established.

Where is it all happening now?

To the Arctic
Since OPEC's price rises in 1973 new
technologies were introduced to pump oil
from offshore and from the Arctic (the
Alaska pipeline)
Off-shore
As shallow-water oil reserves dwindle,
multinational companies have been
developing deep-water oilfields at the edge
of the continental shelf. Shell has developed
Mars, a 500-million-barrel oilfield, in 900 m
of water, off-shore Gulf of Mexico.
There is now the technology to drill wells
in 3,000 m depth of water and in the Arctic
Next
Shale gas, oil sands, oil shale, ultradeep water

How big is a barrel of oil? Whats in it?

The standard barrel of crude oil is 42 US gallons = 34.972 Imperial gallons or
158.987 L. This measurement originated in the early Pennsylvania oil fields, and
permitted both British and American merchants to refer to the same unit, based on
the old English wine measure, the tierce. 1 m3 = 6.29 barrels

The modern World cant function without oil and gas

http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter08.html

Brent Oil Price history

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brent_Spot
_monthly.svg

Brent Oil Crude prices Aug 12th2014: $104.84

5 yr

1 yr
http://oil-price.net/dashboard.php?lang=en

 In 2006, average production cost to bring a

barrel of oil to the surface ranged from $4 per
barrel (excluding taxes) in Africa, $6.83 in USA,
$8.30 in Canada.
Finding costs (to explore for and develop oil
fields) vary by region. Averaged over 2004, 2005
and 2006, finding costs ranged from about
$5.26/barrel in the Middle East to $63.71/barrel
for deep U.S. offshore. Now after BP G of M??
In 2008, Mid E said to be producing at $US13.50
a barrel. Peak selling at $US147!!!
Costs in 2014? Everyone is happy at ~$80 a
barrel, very happy at $100!

How long will it last?

Estimated reserves: 800 billions of barrels, World consumption: 76 millions per
day), Earth has oil for about 10,000 days, i.e. about 27 years, assuming
that consumption does not increase... If consumption increases an average
5% a year, then we have oil for about 15 years. Now that is challenging!!!
But the US Geological Survey estimates the amount of oil that is still to be
found at about 3 trillions, three times the oil reserves known today (it is not
clear if "all" that oil can be pumped to the surface and therefore used). The real
issue is when will production be insufficient to cover demand?
That largely depends on demand, not on reserves. Effects of Shale Gas and
Oil Sands and Sustainables (Wind-Solar-Geothermal) + nuclear?
www.scaruffi.com/politics/oil.html

Have we peaked already?

Malaysia

Indonesia

Database as of 2003
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_reserves

World supply = World demand

92.5
92.0

http://omrpublic.iea.org/

Production has kept up with demand

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/PU200611_Fig1.png

What does it look like?

Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually

black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish or greenish).

Crude oil may also be found in semi-solid form mixed with sand, as in the
Athabasca Oil or tar sands in Canada, where it may be referred to as crude bitumen

Where does all the oil and gas come from?

The Petroleum System: Source , burial, oil kitchen,

migration, carrier, reservoir, seal, trap

How old is the oil and gas?

Sources of SE
Asian Oil & Gas

What is oil composed of?

Where to drill for oil and gas? Three structural traps

How do we find oil and gas?

Geophysics: seismic survey

strata

Note: layers of water, oil, gas trapped

in strata = a stratigraphic trap
Anticlinal trap
Fault trap

2D Seismics: structural traps

3D Seismics: plan view vs cross section

What kind of drilling techniques do we use?

Singapore is world
leader in jack-up rigs

How do we get the oil and gas out?

Vertical drilling
Horizontal drilling

Directional drilling

How is the oil and gas brought ashore?

Upstream petroleum

Where do we go and look for oil and gas?

USGS

Where has oil and gas been

produced from before?

Oil and gas fields

near Singapore
Gas fields supply
80% of Singapores
energy requirements

USGS

Oli and gas fields offshore Malaysia

Old lakes and rivers

To find oil and gas we need to

understand why, where, when it
formed in a source rock.
We need to understand the

palaeogeography

Old lakes = source rocks

Old beaches, river deltas =

reservoir rocks

palaeogeography

Limestone
reefs = source
and reservoir.

palaeogeography

Need to know the geological history of an oil potential region

Need to know the Plate Tectonic History

India collided with the central Eurasia Plate starting at 50 Ma

The Australian Plate collided with SE Eurasia Plate at 15 Ma

Need to know the Plate Tectonic History

All the young

rocks in this
region have been
squeezed and deformedoil and gas
has migrated and become
trapped in reservoirs.

Summary so far: Petroleum Geoscience

Origin of oil, gas and tar sands
The Petroleum System:
source, burial, kitchen, migration,
carrier, reservoir, trap
Exploration
Identifying the rocks
Identify the structures
drilling
Appraisal
Production

This is upstream side of the oil and gas industry

Take a 5 minute break?

Origin of petroleum:
oil, gas and tar
What is petroleum?
Petroleum (L. petroleum < Gr. lit. "rock oil" was first
used in the treatise De re Metallica published in 1556 by the
German mineralogist Georgius Agricola: a naturally occurring,
flammable liquid found in rock formations in the Earth consisting of
a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights,
plus other organic compounds.

What is Natural Gas?

Is made from paraffin-like hydrocarbon molecules
Methane CH4 70 - 98% = pipeline house gas
Ethane C2H6 1 10%
Propane C3H8 trace to 5% = LPG
Butane C4H10 trace to 2%
H2S rotten eggs = sour gas
Very corosive
Inerts = CO2, N, He
He from radioactive decay
of K40 in granite

lines are single bonds, black spheres

are carbon, white spheres are hydrogen.

Types of natural gas

Non-asssociated natural gas (nearly pure methane) is not in contact with oil in
the sub-surface.
Associated natural gas occurs in contact with crude oil and
gas in the subsurface both in the free gas cap and solution gas
Condensate
In some gas reservoirs at high temp, shorter-chain liquid hydrocarbons (5 - 7 C
atoms) occur as a gas. When this gas is produced at the surface, the T decreases
and the liquid hydrocarbons condense out of the gas. The liquid is nearly pure
gasoline: gets mixed with high-octane refinery gasoline.
Wet gas is natural gas that contains condensate.
Dry gas does not.

Occurrence of Natural Gas

Because of the high pressure in
underground reservoirs, gas is
dissolved in crude oil. The formational,
dissolved or solution gas/oil ratio is
the amount of gas dissolved in the
oil in the reservoir under surface
conditions.
As P incr with depth, the gas
dissolved in oil increases. When
crude oil is lifted, the P is
relieved and the solution
gas bubbles out giving the
producing gas-oil ratio of a well
(GOR).
As the gas bubbles out, the oil
volume shrinks

Gas bubbles out

Oil
shrinks

Composition of Petroleum
The proportion of hydrocarbons in the mixture is highly variable and ranges
from as much as 97% by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the
heavier oils and bitumens
The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various
aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic compounds contain nitrogen,
oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper
and vanadium.
The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but
the proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows:
Carbon 83-87% Hydrogen 10-14% Nitrogen 0.1-2% Oxygen 0.1-1.5% Sulfur
0.5-6% Metals <1000 ppm

Chemical analysis of crude oil

The amount of various molecules in an oil sample
can be determined in laboratory. The molecules are
typically extracted in a solvent, then separated in a
gas chromatograph, and determined with a
suitable detector, such as a flame ionization detector
or a mass spectrometer.

Gas-liquid
chromatography

Hydrocarbons
Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the
most commonly found molecules are alkanes (linear or branched), cycloalkanes,
aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each
petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules which define its physical and
chemical properties, like color and viscosity.
The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or
branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general
formula CnH2n+2 They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule.

Octane

Octane, a hydrocarbon found in petroleum, lines are single bonds, black spheres
are carbon, white spheres are hydrogen. High octane fuel
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil

Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into gasoline (petrol),
the ones from nonane (C9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel fuel and kerosene
(primary component of many types of jet fuel), and the ones from hexadecane
upwards into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin
wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up,
although these are usually cracked by modern refineries into more valuable
products. Any shorter hydrocarbons are considered natural gas or natural gas
liquids.
The cycloalkanes, also known as napthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which
have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according
to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have
higher boiling points.

Hexadecane
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil

Cyclobutane

Aromatics
The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more
planar six-carbon rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are
attached with the formula CnHn. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many
have a sweet aroma.

Note S, O, N atoms

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil

Fractional distillation/refining/combustion

These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil

refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons.
Combustion:
2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in gasoline, has a
chemical formula of C8H18 and it reacts with oxygen exothermically:
2C8H18 + 25O2 = 18H20 + 16CO2 + 10.86MJ

isooctane

an isomer of octane

Composition of petroleum oil by element

Element

Percent range

Carbon

83 to 87%

Hydrogen

10 to 14%

Nitrogen

0.1 to 2%

Oxygen

0.1 to 1.5%

Sulfur

0.5 to 6%

Metals

less than 1000 ppm

Composition by weight
Hydrocarbon

Average

Range

Paraffins
(Alkanes)

30%

15 to 60%

Naphthenes
(Cycloalkanes)

49%

30 to 60%

Aromatics

15%

3 to 30%

Asphaltics

6%

remainder

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil

API gravity
Crude oils are compared and described by their density.
API is the most common used density scale.
API stands for the American Petroleum Institute, Washington.
API = [(141.5 / specific gravity at 60oF) 131.5]
So fresh water has an API of 10o. Common crudes vary between sg 0.90 (heavy)
and 0.80 (light oil) g/ml. If its API gravity is greater than 10, it is lighter and floats
on water; if less than 10, it is heavier and sinks.
The API of crude oils varies from 5 to 55. Av crudes are 25 to 35.
Light oils are 35 45, very fluid, transparent, gasoline-rich, the most valuable.
Heavy oils are below 25, very viscous, dark coloured, much asphalt, less valuable
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API_gravity

What happens in a refinery?

Fractional
distillation
Light cuts

Heavy cuts

Downstream
oil industry

Singapore is the 3rd biggest petrochemical producer in the world

After Texas/Lou and Amsterdam/Rotterdam
wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refineryo.uk/earth/oilrefinery.htm

Cracking

wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refineryo.uk/
earth/oilrefinery.htm

wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refineryo.uk/
earth/oilrefinery.htm

Cracking, cokers, alkylation

Cracking, uses heat and pressure to "crack" heavy HC molecules into lighter molecules
Fluid catalytic cracking, or "cat cracking," is the basic gasoline-making process.
Using intense heat (about 500 degrees centigrade), low pressure and a powdered catalyst, the cat cracker can convert most heavy fractions into smaller gasoline molecules.
Hydrocracking applies the same principles using catalysts at
slightly lower temperatures, much greater pressure and hydrogen to obtain chemical
reactions.
Cokers, use heat and moderate pressure to turn residuum into lighter products and a
hard, coal-like substance that is used as an industrial fuel.
Alkylation, essentially is cracking in reverse: makes gasoline components by combining some of the gaseous byproducts of cracking.
70 years ago each 42 gall barrel of crude yielded 11 gallons of petrol, now ~ 25 gal

Source of Oil & Gas

Formation of petroleum occurs by hydrocarbon pyrolysis, i.e. by reactions at highT
and P. Oil forms from zooplankton and algae, which settle to a sea or lake bottom
in large quantities under anoxic conditions. The remains of terrestrial plants
(humous) tends to form, coal, oil and gas).
Crude oil and natural gas is the product of compression (P) and heating (T)
of ancient organic materials (i.e. humin and kerogen) over geological time.
Over geological time the organic matter mixes with mud, and is buried under heavy
layers of sediment resulting in high levels of heat (T) and pressure (P), a process
known as diagenesis.
This causes the organic matter to chemically change, first into a waxy
material known as kerogen which is found in oil shales and then with more heat
into liquid oil and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis.

Need a source rock

organics

When the source rock is buried with

the accumulating sediment, and an

kerogen

adequate temperature is reached,

the organic materials in the source

O
I
L

rock form solid kerogen.

W
I
N
D
O
W

~70oC the kerogen starts to cook.

GAS
WINDOW
400 C

With more burial and heating above

This transformation changes the solid

kerogen into expanded liquid hydrocarbons + natural gas that migrate,
becoming an oil and gas reservoir.

The petroleum system needs an oil and gas kitchen

The oil/gas kitchen: thermal maturation

Forms at rates according to the Arrhenius Equation:
K = A e-Ea/RT
where K = rate,
A = constant,
Ea = activation constant
R = gas constant,
T = temperature
Oil generation is exponentially dependant on T and linearly dependant on time.

Pressure cooker analogy: at low T (~80 100oC) little oil produced. But turn up to
med T (~150oC) then the kerogen starts to cook and gives off oil + and methane gas
At ~175oC long chain hydrocarbons (oil) start to thermally degrade or crack. There
is an optimum range of T and time to which kerogen should be cooked. Some
kerogens will cook nicely at <100oC given enough time.
200oC even for a short time will over-cook = gas. Hence talk of the oil/gas kitchen.
This cooking process is called thermal maturation.

What is kerogen?
As kerogen is a mixture of organic material, formed after the initial
rotting of organic material, it cannot be given a chemical formula.
Its chemical composition can vary distinctively from sample to
sample.
Kerogen from the Green River Formation oil shale deposit from
North America contains elements in the proportions
C 215 : H 330 : O 12 : N 5 : S 1.

Kerogen is insoluble in normal organic solvents because of the huge

molecular weight of its component compounds.
The soluble portion is known as bitumen (found in Tar/Oil Sands)
Kerogen (and petroleum) can only occur where there is no oxygen gas (O2) present
Otherwise the hydrocarbons are oxidised by bacteria to CO2 and H2O

Cartoons of Kerogen Types

During thermal maturation, these high-molecular weight compounds in kerogen

breakdown to shorter chained, lower molecular weight compounds in petroleum.
Crude oil is further broken down to petrol and diesel in refineries (e.g. cracking ete.)

Type I Lacustrine

Type II Shallow marine

Mostly cycloalkanes

Type III Terrestrial plant

Mostly aromatics

Van Krevelin diagram is used to classify kerogen types

A Van Krevelin diagram is

one example of classifying
kerogens, where they tend
to form groups when the
ratios of hydrogen to carbon
and oxygen to carbon are
compared

Summary of kerogen types

Origin of kerogen
Type I = algal, found in lakes: oil
prone

Alkanes
Cycloalkanes

Type II = marine limestones and

shales: oil and gas prone

Type III = land plants = coal + gas

Aromatics and oil + gas prone
IV

IV

Type IV = charcoal

Conclusions
To be a petroleum geoscientist you need to study geography, geology, chemistry, physics,
botany, zoology, maths, engineering, everything!!

Oil, gas are essential to the Worlds future

Petroleum oil and gas forms from the thermal maturation of
buried kerogen. Formed in the oil (70200 oC) and gas (>200
400 oC) windows
Natural gas is mostly methane, associated with crude oil
Petroleum oil - mixture of alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatic
hydrocarbons
Crude oil is refined by fractional distillation and cracking
Kerogen comes as Type I = algal, lacustrine clays, Type II =
algal, marine carbonates and clays, Type III = land plants
(coal), Type IV = charcoal

The End