FLOW OF WATER THROUGH

SOIL
CHAPTER 3

Learning outcome
At the end of this lecture, student should be able
to:
Define the concept of pressure head and
hydraulic gradient
Understand the definition of permeability and 1D flow of water through soil using Darcy Law
Determine the coefficient of permeability using
constant head and falling head test

Content
Definition of pressure head and hydraulic gradient
Permeability and 1-D flow of water through soil Darcy
Law
Determination of the coefficient of permeability
constant head, falling head
Field permeability test confined aquifer, unconfined
aquifer
Seepage and 2D-flow in isotropic and homogeneous
soil. Seepage calculation using flow net under concrete
Dam/sheet piles and through earth dam

INTRODUCTION
The study of the flow of water through permeable
soil media is important in soil mechanics
It is necessary for estimating the quantity of
underground seepage under various hydraulic
conditions
E.g. for investigating problems involving the
pumping of water for underground construction,
and for making stability analyses of earth dams
and earth retaining structures that are subject to
seepage forces

INTRODUCTION
Water is free to flow within a soil mass
In porous media, water will flow from the
zones of higher to lower pore pressure
When considering problems of water flow,
it is usual to express a pressure as a
pressure head or head, measured in
meter of water

PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC

GRADIENT
Bernoullis equation states 3 heads components, total
head (h) causing a water flow

Where
h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
w = unit weight of water
Z = vertical distance of a given point above or below datum

PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC

GRADIENT
If Bernoullis eq is applied to the flow of water
through a porous medium, the velocity head can
be neglected because the seepage velocity is
very small
And the total head at any point can be as follows

PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC

GRADIENT

Figure 1: Pressure, elevation and total heads for flow of water through soil

PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC

GRADIENT
The loss of head between two points, A and B, can
be given by
h = hA hB

The head loss, h can be expressed in a

nondimensional form as
i = h
L

Where i = hydraulic gradient

L = distance between points A and B (the length of
flow over which the loss of head occurred)

PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC

GRADIENT

Figure 2: Nature of variation of v with hydraulic gradient, i

PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC

GRADIENT
In general, the variation of the velocity v with the
hydraulic gradient i is divided into 3 zones
i/ laminar flow zone (Zone I)
ii/ transition zone (Zone II)
iii/ turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces
can be considered laminar
Vi

In fractured rock, stones, gravels and very coarse sands,

turbulent flow conditions may exist

COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
Permeability (hydraulic conductivity) the
capacity of a soil to allow water to pass
through it
Hydraulic conductivity is generally
expressed in cm/sec or m/sec

COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
The value k is used as a measure of the resistance to
flow offered by soil, and affected by several factor:
i/ the porosity of the soil
ii/ the particle size distribution
iii/ the shape and orientation of soil particles
iv/ the degree of saturation/presence of air
v/ the type of cation and thickness of adsorbed layers
associated with clay minerals (if present)
vi/ the viscosity of the soil water, which varies with
temperature

COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
Hydraulic conductivity (k) varies widely for different soils
The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower
and increases rapidly with the degree of saturation
Soil type

k (cm/sec)

k (ft/min)

Clean gravel

100-1.0

200-2.0

Coarse sand

1.0-0.01

2.0-0.02

Fine sand

0.01-0.001

0.02-0.002

Silty clay

0.001-0.00001 0.002-0.00002

Clay

<0.000001

<0.000002

Darcys Law
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for
the discharge velocity of water through saturated
soils
v = ki

Where v = discharge velocity, which the

quantity of water flowing in unit time through a
unit gross cross-sectional area of soil at right
angles to the direction flow
k = hydraulic conductivity

Darcys Law
This equation is on observation about the
flow of water through clean sands
Valid for laminar flow conditions and
applicable for a wide range of soils

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
The value of the coefficient of permeability
will be affected by changes in temperature
It may be shown theoretically that for a
laminar flow condition in a saturated soil
mass:
k w

Where w = unit weight of water

= viscosity of water

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
A correction for the effect of temperature , may
be obtained as follows:
kt = kt k20

Where

kt = value k corresponding to a
temperature of t
k20 = value of k corresponding to a
temperature of 20C
kt = temperature correction coefficient

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
Coefficient of permeability (k) can be measured
using field tests or tests conducted in the
laboratory
The aim to produce similar results as using field
tests
In laboratory, errors may occur due to:
i/ the presence of air bubbles in the water
ii/ Variations in sample density and porosity
iii/ variations in temperature and viscosity of
water
2 test constant head test and falling head test

The constant head test

The constant head test

To determine the coefficients of
permeability (k) of coarse-grained soils
such as gravels and sands having value of
k above 10-4m/s

The constant head test

In this type of laboratory setup,
the water supply at the inlet is
adjusted in such a way that the
difference of head between the
inlet and the outlet remains
constant during the test period
After a constant flow rate is
established, water is collected
in a graduated flask for a
known duration

The constant head test

Q = Avt = A(ki)t

Where

Q = volume of water collected

A = area of cross section of the
soil specimen
t =duration of water collection
q = Av = Aki

Where q = quantity flowing in unit time

The constant head test

And because

i=h
L

The equation can be substituted as below

k = QL
Aht

Example 1
During a test using a constant-head permeameter, the following data
were collected. Determine the average value k
Diameter of sample = 100mm
Temperature of water = 17
Distance between manometer tapping points =150mm
Quantity collected in 2 min. (ml)

541

503

509

474

Difference in manometer levels

(mm)

76

72

68

65

Solution

Solution

Example 2
With the aid of sketch, derive the formula
for the permeability of a soil using a
constant head apparatus

Solution
By applying Darcys equation
q = kAi
k = q/Ai but q = Q/t,
k = 1/A x Q/t x L/H
k = QL/Ath (mm/s)

i = h/L

Where,
q = flow rate (mm3/s)
Q = quantity collected in time (s) = Q (ml) x 10 3 (mm3)
A = cross sectional area (mm 2)
H = different in manometer levels (mm)
L = distance between manometer tapping points (mm)

The falling head test

The falling head test

To determine the coefficient of
permeability of fine soils
For these soils, the rate of flow of water
through them is too small to enable
accurate measurements using the
constant head permeameter

Procedure
The test is conducted by filling the
standpipe with de-aired water and allowing
seepage to take place through the sample
The height of water in the standpipe is
recorded at several time intervals
Test repeated using standpipes of
different diameter

The falling head test

k = 2.303 aL log10 h1
At
h2

Where

a = cross sectional area of the standpipe

A = cross sectional area of the sample
t = time interval
h1 = initial standpipe reading
h2 = final standpipe reading
L = length of sample

Procedure
Specimen 100mm diameter undisturbed
sample
Specimens can also be prepared by compaction
in a standard mould
A wire mesh and gravel filter is provided at the
top and bottom of the sample
The base of the cylinder is stood in a water
reservoir fitted with a constant-level overflow and
the top connected to a glass standpipe of known
diameter

Example 3
During a test using falling-head
permeameter, the following data were
recorded. Determine the average value of
k.
Diameter of sample = 100mm
Length of sample = 150mm

Recorded data
Standpipe
diameter (mm)
5.00
9.00

12.50

Level in standpipe (mm)

Initial, h1

Final, h2

Time interval
(s)

1200

800

82

800

400

149

1200

900

177

900

700

169

700

400

368

1200

800

485

800

400

908

Solution
Cross sectional area of sample, A = 1002 x
4
Cross sectional area of standpipe a = d2 x
4
k = 2.303 aL log10 h1
At
h2

Solution
Recorded data
Standpip
e
diameter
(mm)

Initial, h1

5.00

1200

800

82

0.1761

1.854

800

400

149

0.3010

1.744

1200

900

177

0.1249

1.975

900

700

169

0.1091

1.807

700

400

368

0.2430

1.847

1200

800

485

0.1761

1.959

800

400

908

0.3010

1.789

9.00

12.50

Level in standpipe
(mm)

Computed
Time interval
(s)

log10 h1
h2

k (mm/s)
x 10-3

Final, h2

Average k = 1.85 x 10-3 mm/s

= 1.85 x 10-6 m/s

Exercise
Question 1
The following data were recorded
during a constant-head
permeability test:
Internal diameter = 75 mm
Head lost over a sample length of 180 mm
= 247 mm
Quantity of water collected in 60 s = 626 ml
Calculate the coefficient of permeability for
the soil

Question 2
In a falling-head permeability test
the following data were recorded:
Internal diameter of permeameter = 75.2
mm
Length of sample = 122.0 mm
Internal diameter of standpipe = 6.25 mm
Initial level in standpipe = 750.0 mm
Level in standpipe after 15 min = 247.0 mm
Calculate the permeability of the soil

Learning outcome
At the end of this lecture, student should
be able to:
Determine the coefficient of permeability
for field permeability test confined
aquifer and unconfined aquifer

FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST

Comprehensive multiple-well pumping
tests can be expensive to be carry out, but
offer a high level of reliability
The use of site investigation boreholes
can be economically advantageous

FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST

Steady state pumping tests
Pumping tests involve the measurement of a
pumped quantity from a well, together with
observations in other wells of the resulting
drawdown of the ground level
Steady state is achieved when a constant
pumping rate, the levels in observation wells are
then noted
The analysis of the results depends on whether
the aquifer is confined or unconfined

Pumping test in a confined aquifer

The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined
aquifer can be determined by conducting a pumping test
from a well with a perforated casing that penetrates the
full depth of the aquifer
The pumping rate must not be high enough to reduce
the level in the pumping well below the top of the aquifer
Pumping is continued at a uniform rate q until a steady
state is reached
The arrangement of a pumping well and two observation
wells is shown here

Pumping test in a confined aquifer

Pumping test in a confined aquifer

Water can enter the test well only from the
aquifer of thickness H
The hydraulic conductivity is given as
follows
k = q log10 (r1/r2)
2.727H (h1-h2)

Pumping test in a confined aquifer

Approximation may be derived from a
consideration of the radius of influence (r 0)
of the pumping
It may be assumed that no drawdown of
the piezometric head takes place outside
the radius of influence
r = ro and h =ho

Example 4
A permeability pumping test was carried
out from a well sunk into a confined
stratum of dense sand. The arrangement
of pumping well and observation wells are
shown below. When a steady state was
achieved at a pumping rate of 37.4m 3/hr,
the following drawdown were observed:

pumping well:
d = 4.46m
observation well 1: d = 0.42m
observation well 2: d = 1.15m
a) Calculate a value for the coefficient of
permeability of the sand using the observation
well data
b) Estimate the radius of influence at this pumping
rate

Solution
a) Observation well data: r1 = 50m r2 = 15m
ho = 11.7 + 7.4 2.5 = 16.6m
h1 = 16.6 0.42 = 16.18m
h2 = 16.6 1.15 = 15.45m
q = 37.4 / 3600 = 10.39 x 10-3 m3/s
k = q log10 (r1/r2)
2.727 H (h1-h2)
= (10.39 x 10-3 ) log 10 (50/15)
2.727 x 11.7 x (16.18 15.45)
= 2.33 x 10-4 m/s

H = 11.7m

(b) No drawdown
Then, putting r1 =50m and h1 = 16.18m
k = q log10 (ro/r1)
2.727 H (ho-h1)
Log10 (ro/50) = 2.33 x 10-4 x 2.727 x 11.7
16.6 16.18
10.39 x 10 -3
ro = 100m

Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer

An unconfined aquifer is a free-draining surface
layer underlain by an impervious base
During the test, water is pumped out at a
constant rate from a test well that has a
perforated casing
Several observations wells at various radial
distance are made around the test well
Continuous observation of water level in the test
well are made after the start of pumping until a
steady state is reached

Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer

Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer

The hydraulic conductivity is given as
follows
k = 2.303q log10 (r1/r2)
(h12-h22)

Example 5
A permeability test was carried out from well
sunk through a surface layer of medium dense
sand. Initially, the water table was located at a
depth of 2.5m. When a steady state was
achieved at a pumping rate of 23.4m 3/hr, the
following draw-downs were observed
Pumping well:
Observation well 1:
Observation well 2:

d = 3.64m
d = 0.48m
d = 0.96m

(a) Calculate value for the coefficient of

permeability of the sand using the
observation well data
(b) Estimate the radius of influence at this
pumping rate

Solution
(a) Observation data :
r1 = 62m
r2 = 18m
ho = 12 2.5 = 9.5m
h1 = 9.5 0.48 = 9.02m
h2 = 9.5 0.96 = 8.54m
q = 23.4/3600 = 6.5 x 10-3 m3/s
k = 2.303q log10 (r1/r2)
(h12-h22)
= 3.04 x 10-4 m/s

(b) Putting r1 =62m and h1 = 9.02m

k = 2.303q log10 (ro/r1)
(ho2-h12)
ro = 229 m

Exercise
Question 1
For a field pumping test a well was sunk through a horizontal layer of a sand which
proved to be 14.4 m thick and to be underlain by a stratum of clay. Two observation
wells were sunk, respectively 18 m and 64 m from the pumping well. The water table
was initially 2.2 m below the ground level. At a steady state pumping-rate of 328
litres/min, the drawdowns in the observation wells were found to be 1.92 and 1.16 m
respectively. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the sand.

Question 2
A horizontal layer of sand of 6.0 m thickness is overlain by a layer of clay with a
horizontal surface thickness of 4.8 m. An impermeable layer underlies the sand. In
order to carry out a pumping test, a well was sunk to the bottom of the sand and two
observation wells were sunk through clay just into the sand at distances 12 m and 40
m from the pumping well. At a steady pump rate of 600 litres/min., the water levels in
the observation wells were reduced by 2.28 m and 1.79 m respectively. Calculate the
coefficient of permeability of the sand if the initial piezometric surface level lies 1.0 m
below the ground surface.

Seepage and 2-D Flow in Isotropic

and Homogeneous Soil
In preceding lesson, we considered some simple cases for
which direct application of Darcys law was required to
calculate the flow of water through soil
In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in one
direction only, nor is it uniform over the entire area
perpendicular to the flow
The seepage taking place around sheet-piling, dams, under
other water-retaining structures and through embankments and
earth dams is two dimensional
Vertical and horizontal velocity components vary from point to
point within the cross-section of the soil mass
Graphical representation known as a flow net will be introduced

The flow of water through soils is described by

Laplaces equation.

Where H =total head

kx and kz = hydraulic conductivities in X and Y
directions
Laplaces eq expresses the condition that the
changes of hydraulic gradient in one direction are
balanced by changes in the other directions

Laplaces equation is also called the potential flow

equation because the velocity head is neglected
If the soil is isotropic with respect to the hydraulic
conductivity that is kx = kz, the preceding
continuity equation for 2-D flow simplifies to
There are 2 techniques for Laplaces equation. One
of it is an approximate method called flownet
sketching

Flow Net
A flownet is a graphical representation of a flow field that satisfies
Laplaces equation and comprises a family of flow lines and
equipotential lines
Flow line - a line along which a
water particle will travel from
upstream to the downstream side
in the permeable soil medium
Equipotential line - a line along
which the potential head at all
points is equal

A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines is called

a flow net

Completed flow net

Construction of Flow Net

Draw the structure and soil mass to suitable scale
Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries
Sketch a series of flow lines (4 or 5) and then sketch an
appropriate number of equipotential lines such that the area
between a pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential lines
is approximately a curvilinear square
Theoritically, any no. of flow lines may be drawn and the
greater the no., the more accurate should be the
calculations that follow.
However, from a practical point of view the task is simplified
by drawing only few flow lines; it is not often that more than
5 or 6 will be necessary

Seepage Calculation
In any flow net, the strip between any two adjacent
flow lines is called a flow channel.
Let h1, h2, h3, h4,hn be the piezometric levels
corresponding to the equipotential lines
The rate of seepage through the flow channel per
unit length (perpendicular to the vertical section
through the permeable layer) can be calculated as
follows
q1=q2=q3=..=qn

From Darcys law, the flow rate is equal to

kiA. Thus
If the number of flow channels in a flow
net is equal to Nf, the total rate of flow
through all the channels per unit length
can be given by

Or
Where H =head difference between the
upstream and downstream sides
Nd = number of potential drop
Nf = number of flow channels in flow net
n = b1/l1=b2/l2=b3/l3==n
elements are not square)

(i.e.

the

EXAMPLE

ANSWER

SUMMARY
In this chapter, weve discussed Darcys Law, definition of hydraulic
conductivity, laboratory and field determination of hydraulic conductivity
The accuracy of the values of k determined in the laboratory depends on
several factor
- Temperature of the fluid
- Viscosity of the fluid
- Trapped air bubbles present in the soil specimen
- Degree of saturation of the soil specimen
- Migration of fines during testing
- Duplication of field conditions in the laboratory
The actual value of the hydraulic conductivity in the field may also be somewhat
different than that obtained in the laboratory because of the nonhomogeneity of
the soil
Hence, proper care should be taken in assessing the order of the magnitude of
k for all design consideration.