Quality of Water

Water Quality and Standards

Water delivered to consumer should be
clear, colorless, odourless and safe to drink.
It should not contain conc of chemicals that
are physiologically harmful, aesthetically
objectionable or economically damaging.
WHO provides guidelines for minimum level
of quality for public supply of water.
The quality standards provide a description
of various inorganic and organic chemicals
that may be found in drinking water.

Water Quality and Standards

Purpose of these standards is to ensure a
safe and palatable drinking water and
operators of treatment systems have
obligation to meet these requirements.
If level of any parameter exceeds its
permissible limits, it indicates adverse water
quality and must be reported.

Analysis of Water Quality

The parameters of analysis depends on the
specific use the water is to be put to.
Analysis is essential for designing water
treatment system as it is operated on basis
of impurities present.
After treatment, analysis is done again to
ascertain whether water is purified and
meets the standards.
Quality is variable with respect to time and
space so periodic tests are necessary.
Following parameters are routinely
analyzed:
Physical

Physical Water Quality

Parameters
Characteristics that respond to the
senses of sight, touch, taste or smell.
Suspended Solids
Turbidity
Color
Taste
Odor
Temperature

Suspended solids
Solids may consist of inorganic or organic
particles or of immiscible liquids.
Inorganic- clay, silt and soil constituents.
Organic materials- plant fibers and
biological solids (algal cells, bacteria, etc)

Significance
Aesthetically displeasing
provides adsorption sites for chemical
and biological agents.
organic solids may be degraded, resulting
in objectionable by-products.

Testing
Passing the water sample through Filter
paper and then evaporating the paper to
dryness and measuring the residue.
Expressed as mg/l.

Turbidity
measure of extent to which light is either
absorbed or scattered.
due to suspended solids.

Significance
colloidal particles may provide adsorption
site for chemicals and biological organisms.
disinfection is difficult as solids may shield
organisms.
may interfere with light penetration and
photosynthetic reactions in streams and lakes.

Testing
Measured photometrically by
determining the percentage of light of
given intensity that is either absorbed or
scattered.
Earlier determined in Jackson Candle
Turbidity Unit (JTU).
Now replaced by Nephelometric
Turbidity Unit (NTU).
For filtered water, it should be less than
1.0 NTU.

Color
Pure water is colorless.
water is nature is often colored by foreign
substances.

Significance
not aesthetically acceptable.
highly colored water is unsuitable for
laundering, dyeing, papermaking, beverage
manufacturing, dairy production and other
food processing, and tectile and plastic
production.

Testing
Color of water is compared with
standard color solution or color discs.
Color produced by 1 mg of platinum in
litre of distilled water has been fixed as
unit of color (CU).
For aesthetic purposes, it should be
below 5 CU.

Taste and Odor

Due to presence of dead or living microorganisms, dissolved gases such as H2S,
CH4, CO2 or O2 with organic matter, mineral
substances.

Significance
aesthetically displeasing.

Testing
Intensity of Odor is measured in terms
of Threshold Odor Number (TON), and is
equal to:

Where,
A= vol of odorous water in ml
B= vol of odor-free water required to
produce 200ml of mixture where smell is
barely detectable.

Temperature
Governs to large extent, the biological species
present and their rates of activity.
Has effect on most chemical reactions that
occur in natural water systems.
Pronounced effect on solubility of gases in
water.

Significance
For public supply, most desirable temp is
between 4.4 C - 10 C.
Above 26 C is undesirable and above 35 C is
unfit as it may be prone to bacterial
contamination.

Chemical Water Quality

Parameters
Water is universal solvent and chemical
parameters are related to solvent
capabilities of water.

Total Dissolved Solids

pH
Alkalinity
Hardness
Metals
Nitrates

Total Dissolved Solids

material remaining in water after filtration
for suspended solids analysis is considered
to be dissolved.

Significance
dissolved minerals and organic
constituents may produce aesthetically
displeasing colors, tastes and odours.
toxic chemicals may be present.

Testing
by evaporating to dryness, a sample
which has been filtered to remove
suspended solids. The remaining residue
is weighed and represents TDS.
Expressed as mg/l.

pH Value
Depending upon nature of dissolved salts
and minerals, water may be acidic or
alkaline.
Acidity is determined on pH scale.
pH is defined as negative log of hydrogen
ion [H+]in water.
Expressed on scale of 0-14.
pH<7 Acidic; pH>7 Alkaline

Testing
Determined using specially prepared
electrodes; instrument is pH meter.

Alkalinity
Quantity of ions in water that will react to
neutralize hydrogen ions.
Measure of ability of water to neutralize acids.
primarily due to presence of bicarbonates &
carbonates

Significance
reactions can occur between alkalinity and
certain cations in water.
resultant precipitate can foul pipes and other
water-systems appurtenances.
imparts bitter taste to water.

Testing
by titrating water with an acid and
determining the hydrogen equivalent.
expressed as mg/l of CaCO3.

Hardness
presence of multivalent metallic cations in
solution.
classified as carbonate and non carbonate
hardness, depending upon anion it associates
with.

Significance
scaling in boilers.
more soap consumption as lathering does not
occur, causing economic loss.
pH changes in water distribution system may
result in deposits of precipates.

Testing
by chemical titration to determine
quantity of calcium and magnesium
ions.
titration with EDTA using eriochrome
black T as an indicator.

Metals
All metals are soluble to some extent.
by dissolution from natural deposits and
discharges from domestic, industrial &
agricultural wastewaters.
Non-toxic metals
not harmful in relatively small amounts.
sodium, iron, manganese, aluminum, copper
and zinc are commonly found in water.
excessive conc can cause bitter taste and
health hazard to cardiac & kidney patients.

Toxic metals
harmful to humans and other organisms in
small quantities.
due to mining, industrial or agricultural
sources.
arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead,
mercury and silver.
can get accumulated and concentrated in
food chain, posing greatest danger to
organisms at top of food chain.
Testing
measurement is usually made by atomic
absorption spectrophotometry.

Nitrates
Nitrogen presence indicates presence of
organic matter.
May be present as: nitrites, nirates, free
ammonia, albuminoid nitrogen.
presence of nitrites is extremely dangerous.
nitrites are converted to nitrates by full
oxidation of organic matter.
nitrates should not exceed 45 mg/l; causes
methamoglobamine.

Biological Water Quality

Parameters

Microbiological composition is most important of

drinking water because of possible presence of
disease causing organisms or pathogens.
organisms include bacteria, protozoa, viruses,
cysts and parasitic worms.
specific disease causing organisms are not easily
identified; as a result screening tests have been
developed to indicate degree of contamination.
diseases often spread by micro-organisms in
fecal waste.
widely used method involves testing for indicator
organisms that are present if fecal contamination
is there.

Methods used to test coliform bacteria

are:

Presence/ Absence Test (P/A)

Membrane Filter Test (MF)
Heterotrophic (standard) plate count (HPC)
Multiple Tube Fermentation Test

The common method of expressing bacterial

density in a water sample is its Most Probable
Number (MPN).

Chemistry in Water Treatment

Solutions
Percent Solution: conc of solute is expressed as a
percentage of the total weight of solution.
Molar Solution: The number of moles (gramsolute/gram-molecular weight of solute) of the
solute dissolved in one litre of solution.
Normal Solution: The number of gram-equivalents
(gram-solute/gram-equivalent weight of solute) of
solute present in one litre solution.
gram-equivalent = gram-molecular weight / Z
Z = equivalence; no. of H atoms that an
element or radical can hold in combination or
replace in a reaction.

 Chemical Feeding
Majority of processes require chemical feeding.
Correct dosing is important in maintaining
efficiency of process.

Following calculations are required to perform:

Dosage and Dosage Rate
Making solutions of desired strength
Feed rate of chemicals
Calibration of chemicals

 Dosage
Defined as mass of chemical added to a given
volume of water.
Allows us to calculate the mass (m) of chemical
required to treat a given volume (V) of water at a
dosage (C).

Dosage rate refers to amount of chemical applied

per day to treat a given quantity of water. It is
expressed in kg/d.
Can be determined by multiplying dosage and
water flow rate.

 Dilution Formula

Expression for mass balance of the chemical.

Useful in performing following calculations:
Diluting a solution
Making a solution using liquid chemical
Determining the vol of solution to be fed in order
to apply a desired dosage of the chemical.
Dilution formula:

 Density Considerations
When density of liquid chemical is different from
water, strength of 1% is not equal to 10000 mg/L.
For correct conversion, it is needed to multiply by
density of liquid chemical, r.
converting concentration:
where Cm/m is strength of solution, SG is specific
gravity, r is the density of solution, rw is density if
water.

Standards of Quality for Water Use

For Drinking Purpose

Water Related Diseases

Diseases Related to
Water

Water-borne
Diseases

Water-based
Diseases

Water-washed
Diseases

Water-related
Diseases

Water-borne Diseases
Diseases caused by ingestion of
water contaminated by human
or animal excrement, which
contain pathogenic
microorganisms.
Include cholera, typhoid,
amoebic and bacillary dysentery
and other diarrheal diseases

Diarrheal Diseases

Giardiasis (Protozoan)
Cryptosporidiosis (Bacteria)
Campylobacteriosis (Bacteria)
Shigellosis (Bacteria)
Viral Gastroenteritis (Virus)
Cyclosporiasis (Parasite)

In addition, water-borne disease

can be caused by the pollution of
water with chemicals that have an
adverse effect on health

Arsenic
Flouride
Nitrates from fertilizers
Carcinogenic pesticides (DDT)
Lead (from pipes)
Heavy Metals

Water-washed Diseases
Diseases caused by poor personal
hygiene and skin and eye contact
with contaminated water.
These include scabies, trachoma,
typhus, and other flea, lice and
tick-borne diseases.

Water-based Diseases
Diseases caused by parasites
found in intermediate organisms
living in contaminated water.
Includes Schistosomiasis and
Dracunculiasis

Water-related Diseases
Water-related diseases are caused
by insect vectors, especially
mosquitoes, that breed or feed
near contaminated water.
They are not typically associated
with lack of access to clean
drinking water or sanitation
services.
Include dengue, filariasis, malaria,
onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis
and yellow fever.

Problems
What, in your own words, do you
understand when it is stated that MPN of a
certain water sample is 25/100 mL.
MPN test was performed on a wastewater
sample, and the results given in the table
below obtained.

Describe in detail how you would

determine the MPN of the sample based

 A laboratory runs a solids test. The weight

of the crucible = 48.6212g. A 100 ml
sample is placed in the crucible and the
water is evaporated. The weight of the
crucible and dry solids = 48.6432g. The
crucible is placed in a 600oC furnace for 24
hr and cooled in a desicator. The weight of
the cooled crucible and residue, or
unburned solids = 48.6300g. Find the
total, volatile and fixed solids.
A water sample contains 60mg/l of
calcium, 60 mg/l of magnesium, and
25mg/l of sodium. What is the total

 Nitrite standards for gaseous NO2

measurement are prepared by dissolving
2.03 g NaNO2 in 1000 mL of distilled
water. This primary standard is then
diluted 100 times to get the secondary
standard. Prove that 1 mL of this
secondary standard is equivalent to 10 mL
of NO2 (at 298oK, 1 atm.), given that 0.72
moles of NaNO2 produces same color as 1
mole of NO2.
What is the theoretical oxygen demand in
mg/l for a 1.67 x 10-3 molar solution of
glucose, C6H12O6 to decompose completely
?

 Assuming a deoxygenation constant of

0.25/d. Calculate the expected BOD5 if the
BOD3 is 148 mg/l.
Propionitrile has a general formula of
CH3CH2CN. It is completely oxidized by
dichromate during the COD test. Write a
balanced equation for reaction of C-2H3C2
H2C+2N-3 with Cr2O7--. The nitrogen endproduct of the reaction is NH3. What is the
COD of 50mg/l of Propionitrile.
Discuss the sources and impacts of
suspended solids, tastes and odours in
water supplies. How are they measured ?

 What is an indicator organism ? Discuss

the characteristics of the ideal pathogen
indicator and indicate which organisms
most nearly exhibit these characteristics.
Name toxic metals that may be dissolved
in water, identify their principal sorces and
discuss their impacts.
A 200 ml sample of water has an initial pH
of 10. Thirty milliliters of 0.02 N H2SO4. Is
required to titrate the sample to pH 4.5.
What is the total alkalinity of the water in
milligrams per litre as CaCO3?

 Tests for common ions are run on a sample

of water and the results are shown below.
If a 10 percent error in the balance is
acceptable, should the analysis be
considered complete?
Ca+2 = 55mg/l, Mg2+ = 18mg/l, Na+ =
98mg/l,
HCO3- = 250mg/l, SO42- = 60mg/l, Cl- =
89mg/l