Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electronics

Introduction
Microelectronics
Integrated Circuits (IC) Technology
Silicon Chip
Microcomputer / Microprocessor
Discrete Circuits

Signals
Signal Processing
Transducers

http://www.eas.asu.edu/~midle/jdsp/jdsp.html

Signals
Voltage Sources

Current Sources

Thevenin & Norton

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http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/Circuit_Design_Lab/circuit_design_lab.html
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/CircuitElements/vcvs.html

Figure 1.1 Two alternative representations of a signal source: (a) the Thvenin form, and (b) the Norton form.

Figure 1.2 An arbitrary voltage signal vs(t).

Figure 1.3 Sine-wave voltage signal of amplitude Va and frequency f = 1/T Hz. The angular frequency v = 2pf rad/s.

Signals
Voltage Sources

Current Sources

Signals
Voltage Sources

Current Sources

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Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series

frequency
x

time

Fourier Transform

Fundamental and Harmonics

http://www.educatorscorner.com/experiments/spectral/SpecAn3.shtml

Figure 1.4 A symmetrical square-wave signal of amplitude V.

Figure 1.5 The frequency spectrum (also known as the line spectrum) of the periodic square wave of Fig. 1.4.

Figure 1.6 The frequency spectrum of an arbitrary waveform such as that in Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.7 Sampling the continuous-time analog signal in (a) results in the discrete-time signal in (b).

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series
DefiningtheSignalorFunctiontobeAnalyzed:

f ( t) sin 0 t ( t ) .2 cos 7 0 t

f ( t)

http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series
FourierSeries(Trigonometricform)off(t):
1
a0
T

2
a
n
T

a0 0

f ( t) dt

averagevalue

f ( t ) cos n 0 t d t

cosinecoefficients

nvaryingfrom1toN

an
0

0.1

10

20

30

40
n

50

60

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series
T

2
b
n
T

f ( t ) sin n 0 t d t

sinecoefficients

bn
0

0.5

10

20

30

40
n

50

60

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series
Rearrangingtotalexpressiontoincludea0inthecompletespectrum
a1 a
n

b1 b

1
c1
n
2

a1n 2 b1n 2

c a0
0

0.4
c1 n
0

0.2

10

20

30

40
n

50

60

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series
Reconstructionoftimedomainfunctionfromtrig.Fourierseries:

f2( t)

an1cos n10t bn1sin n10 t a0

n1

f2( t )
f(t)

4
t

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series
FourierSeries(ComplexForm)off(t):

w
n

N n

i w n 0 t
1
C
f ( t) e
dt
n
T
0

0.04
Cn
0

0.02

10

20

30

40
n

50

60

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

FourierTransformoff(t)gives:

f ( t) e

i t

N .25

1
2

dt

0.3

F( )

0.2

0
0.1

30

20

10

10

20

30

ThemagnitudeofF(
)yieldsthecontinuousfrequencyspectrum,anditis
obviouslyoftheformofthesamplingfunction.ThevalueofF(0)isA
.
Aplotof|F( )|asafunctionof
doesnotindicatethemagnitudeofthe
voltagepresentatanygivenfrequency.Whatisit,then?Examinationof
F showsthat,iff(t)isavoltagewaveform,then
F isdimensionally
"voltsperunitfrequency,"aconceptthatmaybestrangetomostofus.

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html
http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/listen/music1.html
http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/phasorlecture2/indexphasorlect2.htm

Figure 1.8 Variation of a particular binary digital signal with time.

Figure 1.9 Block-diagram representation of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).

Analog and Digital Signals

Sampling Rate

http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/sampling/index.html

Binary number system

http://scholar.hw.ac.uk/site/computing/activity11.asp

Analog-to-Digital Converter
http://www.astro-med.com/knowledge/adc.html
http://www.maxim-ic.com/design_guides/English/AD_CONVERTERS_21.pdf

Digital-to-Analog Converter
http://www.maxim-ic.com/ADCDACRef.cfm

Figure 1.10 (a) Circuit symbol for amplifier. (b) An amplifier with a common terminal (ground) between the input and output ports.

Figure 1.11 (a) A voltage amplifier fed with a signal vI(t) and connected to a load resistance RL. (b) Transfer characteristic of a linear voltage amplifier
with voltage gain Av.

Figure 1.12 An amplifier that requires two dc supplies (shown as batteries) for operation.

Figure 1.13 An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.

Figure 1.14 (a) An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain linear operation the amplifier is biased as
shown, and the signal amplitude is kept small. Observe that this amplifier is operated from a single power supply, VDD.

Figure 1.15 A sketch of the transfer characteristic of the amplifier of Example 1.2. Note that this amplifier is inverting (i.e., with a gain that is
negative).

Figure 1.16 Symbol convention employed throughout the book.

Figure 1.17 (a) Circuit model for the voltage amplifier. (b) The voltage amplifier with input signal source and load.

Figure 1.18 Three-stage amplifier for Example 1.3.

Figure 1.19 (a) Small-signal circuit model for a bipolar junction transistor (BJT). (b) The BJT connected as an amplifier with the emitter as a common
terminal between input and output (called a common-emitter amplifier). (c) An alternative small-signal circuit model for the BJT.

Figure E1.20

Figure 1.20 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier. At the test frequency v, the amplifier gain is characterized by its magnitude (Vo/Vi)
and phase f.

Figure 1.21 Typical magnitude response of an amplifier. |T(v)| is the magnitude of the amplifier transfer functionthat is, the ratio of the output
Vo(v) to the input Vi(v).

Figure 1.22 Two examples of STC networks: (a) a low-pass network and (b) a high-pass network.

Figure 1.23 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type.

Figure 1.24 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type.

Figure 1.25 Circuit for Example 1.5.

Figure 1.26 Frequency response for (a) a capacitively coupled amplifier, (b) a direct-coupled amplifier, and (c) a tuned or bandpass amplifier.

Figure 1.27 Use of a capacitor to couple amplifier stages.

Figure E1.23

Figure 1.28 A logic inverter operating from a dc supply VDD.

Figure 1.29 Voltage transfer characteristic of an inverter. The VTC is approximated by three straightline segments. Note the four parameters of the
VTC (VOH, VOL, VIL, and VIH) and their use in determining the noise margins (NMH and NML).

Figure 1.30 The VTC of an ideal inverter.

Figure 1.31 (a) The simplest implementation of a logic inverter using a voltage-controlled switch; (b) equivalent circuit when vI is low; and (c)
equivalent circuit when vI is high. Note that the switch is assumed to close when vI is high.

Figure 1.32 A more elaborate implementation of the logic inverter utilizing two complementary switches. This is the basis of the CMOS inverter
studied in Section 4.10.

Figure 1.33 Another inverter implementation utilizing a double-throw switch to steer the constant current IEE to RC1 (when vI is high) or RC2 (when vI is
low). This is the basis of the emitter-coupled logic (ECL) studied in Chapters 7 and 11.

Figure 1.34 Example 1.6: (a) The inverter circuit after the switch opens (i.e., for t 0). (b) Waveforms of vI and vO. Observe that the switch is
assumed to operate instantaneously. vO rises exponentially, starting at VOL and heading toward VOH .

Figure 1.35 Definitions of propagation delays and transition times of the logic inverter.

Figure P1.6

Figure P1.10

Figure P1.14

Figure P1.15

Figure P1.16

Figure P1.17

Figure P1.18

Figure P1.37

Figure P1.58

Figure P1.63

Figure P1.65

Figure P1.67

Figure P1.68

Figure P1.72

Figure P1.77

Figure P1.79

Table 1.1 The Four Amplifier Types

Amplifiers

Vin

Vout
Voltage gain (Av) = Vout/Vin
Linear - output is proportional to input

Current amplifiers

current gain (Ai) = Iout/Iin

Power amplifiers

power gain (Ap) = Pout/Pin

Amplifiers

Voltage_Gain A v

Signal Amplification
Distortion
Non-Linear Distortion
Symbols

vo
vi

Power_Gain A p
input_power PI

Current_Gain A i
Ap

Amplifier Power Supplies

Efficiency

v I iI

io
iI

Av Ai

Gains Voltage, Power, Current

Decibels

v o io

load_power PL

Voltage_gain_in_decibels

20 log A v

Coltage_gain_in_decibels

20 log A i

Power_gain_in_decibels

10 log A p

dB
dB
dB

Amplifiers
Gain in terms of decibels
Typical values of voltage gain, 10, 100, 1000 depending on size of input signal
Decibels often used when dealing with large ranges or multiple stages
Av in decibels (dB) = 20log|Av|
Ai in decibels (dB) = 20log|Ai|
Ap in decibels (dB) = 10log|Ap|

Av = 10 000
Av = 1000
Av = 100
Av = 10
Av = -10

20log|10 000| = 80dB

20log|1000| = 60dB
20log|100| = 40dB
20log|10| = 20dB
20log|-10| = 20dB

Av = 0.1

20log|0.1| = -20dB

Av negative - indicates a phase change (no change in dB)

dB negative - indicates signal is attenuated

Amplifiers
Example 1.1
A v

Av 9

Ii 0.0001

A v 20 log 9

9
Io
1000

Io 9 10

A v 19.085
3

A i 20 log A i

PL 40.5

PI Virms Iirms
A p

PL
PI

Pdc 10 9.5 10 9.5

PL
Pdc

100

Virms

9
2
1
2

dB
mW

Pdissipated 149.55

21.316

Iirms

Pdc 190

Iorms

A p 29.085

Pdissipated Pdc PI PL

Ii

A i 90

mW

A p 810

Io

Vorms

dB

mW

PI 0.05

A p 10 log 810

A i

A i 39.085

PL Vorms Iorms

dB

mW

9
2
0.1
2

Amplifiers
Saturation

An amplifier transfer
characteristic that is linear
except for output
saturation.

An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.

Amplifiers
Non-Linear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing

An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain linear
operation the amplifier is biased as shown, and the signal amplitude is kept small.

Amplifiers
Circuit model of a voltage amplifier

+
Vin

I=0

+
Vout
-

Vout = Avo Vin

Ri = input resistance
Ro = output resistance

EPOLY is a dependent source is SPICE; a

voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
EPOLY has a gain of Avo
The input to EPOLY is the voltage across
Ri

Amplifiers
Voltage amplifier with input source and load

Vin

Vout

Avo - gain of VCVS only, o indicates

output is open
Av - gain of entire circuit
Av changes with circuit, Avo does not!

What should we design Ro to be?

Av = Vout/Vin = Avo RL/(RL + Ro)
Let Ro < < RL to make Av maximum
Ideally Ro = 0

Amplifiers
Input resistance of amplifier circuit

Vin

Vout

What should we design Rin to be?

Vin = Vs Ri/(Ri + Rs)
Let Rin >> Rs to make Vin = Vs
Ideally Rin = infinity

If Rin = infinity, then all of Vs

makes it to the the amplifier;
otherwise part of the signal is lost

Amplifiers
Basic characteristics of ideal amplifier
For maximum voltage transfer
Rout = 0
Rin = infinity

Amplifiers
Example 1.2
v I 0.6 0.61 0.69
11 40 vI

v o v I 10 10

10

vo vI

0
0.58

0.6

0.62

0.64
vI

0.66

0.68

0.7

Amplifiers
Example 1.2

Lminus 0.3
v o 0.3

inital value

v I 0

given
vo

11

10 10

40 vI

v I Find v I

v I 0.69

v I 0

11

40 vI

v o v I 10 10

Lplus v o ( 0)

Lplus 10

v I 0
v o 5
vo

given
11

10 10

v I Find v I

40 vI

v I 0.673

Amplifiers
Example 1.2
11 40 vI

10 10
1

highlight equation use symbolics

then differentiate

exp 40 v I
2500000000
1
2500000000

exp ( 40 0.673) 196.457

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Voltage Amplifiers
Common Models
Show example on board

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Example 1.3
Class assignment

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Other Amplifiers
Current
Transconductance
Transresistance

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Example 1.4

Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the active mode.

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth
RC Circuits Class Exercise

Single-Time Constant Networks

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http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/acWorkout/Switched_RCandRL.html

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type.

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type.

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Example 1.5
Class assignment

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Classification of Amplifiers
Based on Frequency Response

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Exercise 1.6
Class assignment

The Digital Logic Inverter

Function
Transfer Characteristics
Noise Margins

The Digital Logic Inverter

Function
Transfer Characteristics
Noise Margins

The Digital Logic Inverter

Inverter Implementation