Chapter

4
The Tissue
Level of
Organization
PowerPoint Lecture Slides
prepared by Jason LaPres
Lone Star College - North Harris

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4-1 The four tissue types

are epithelial, connective,
muscle, and neural

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Four Types of Tissues

Tissues are collections of cells and cell
products that perform specific, limited
functions

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Tissues of the Body

Figure 4-1
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4-2 Epithelial tissue covers

body surfaces, lines cavities
and tubular structures, and
serves essential functions

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Epithelial Tissues
Characteristics of Epithelia
Cellularity (cell junctions)
Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)
Attachment
Avascularity
Regeneration

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Epithelial Tissues
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
Provide physical protection
Control permeability
Provide sensation
Produce specialized secretions (glandular
epithelium)

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Intercellular Connections
Support and Communication
CAMs (cell adhesion molecules):
Transmembrane proteins

Intercellular cement:
Proteoglycans

Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid):

Glycosaminoglycans

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Intercellular Connections
Cell junctions
Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material:
Occluding (tight) junctions
Gap junctions
Macula adherens (desmosomes)

Intercellular Connections
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Intercellular Connections

Figure 4-2
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Intercellular Connections

Figure 4-2
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Intercellular Connections

Figure 4-2
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Intercellular Connections

Figure 4-2
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The Surface of Epithelial Cells

Figure 4-3
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Epithelial Renewal and Repair

Epithelia are replaced by division of
germinative cells (stem cells)
Near basal lamina

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4-3 Cell shape and number of

layers determine the
classification of epithelia

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Classification of Epithelia
Singular epithelium; plural epithelia
Classes of Epithelia
Based on layers:
Simple epithelium: single layer of cells
Stratified epithelium: several layers of cells

Based on shape:
Squamous epithelia: thin and flat
Cuboidal epithelia: square shaped
Columnar epithelia: tall, slender rectangles

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Classification of Epithelia

Figure 4-4
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Classification of Epithelia

Figure 4-4
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Classification of Epithelia

Figure 4-4
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Classification of Epithelia

Figure 4-5
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Classification of Epithelia

Figure 4-5
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Classification of Epithelia

Figure 4-5
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Glandular Epithelia
Endocrine Glands
Release hormones:
Into interstitial fluid
No ducts

Exocrine Glands
Produce secretions:
Onto epithelial surfaces
Through ducts

Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion

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Glandular Epithelia
Mechanism of Secretion
Merocrine secretion:
Is produced in Golgi apparatus
Is released by vesicles (exocytosis)
For example, sweat glands

Apocrine secretion:
Is produced in Golgi apparatus
Is released by shedding cytoplasm
For example, mammary gland

Holocrine secretion:
Is released by cells bursting, killing gland cells
Gland cells replaced by stem cells
For example, sebaceous gland
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Mechanisms of Secretion

Figure 4-6
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Glandular Epithelia
Types of Secretions
Serous glands:
Watery secretions

Mucous glands:
Secrete mucins

Mixed exocrine glands:

Both serous and mucous

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4-4 Connective tissue

provides a protective
structural framework for other
tissue types

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Connective Tissues
Characteristics of Connective Tissues
Specialized cells
Solid extracellular protein fibers
Fluid extracellular ground substance

The extracellular components of connective

tissues (fibers and ground substance) make up
the matrix
Majority of tissue volume
Determines specialized function
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Connective Tissues
Support and protection
Transportation of materials
Storage of energy reserves
Defense of the body

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Major Types of Connective Tissue

Figure 4-7
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Connective Tissues
Cell Types of Connective Tissue
Proper
Fibroblasts
Macrophages
Adipocytes
Mast cells

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Connective Tissues
Connective Tissue Fibers
Collagen fibers
Reticular fibers
Elastic fibers

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Connective Tissues
Ground Substance
Is clear, colorless, and viscous
Fills spaces between cells and slows
pathogen movement

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Types of Connective Tissue Proper

Loose Connective Tissue
More ground substance, less fibers
For example, fat (adipose tissue)

Dense Connective Tissue

More fibers, less ground substance
For example, tendons
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Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue

Proper

Figure 4-8
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Connective Tissue Proper

Figure 4-9
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Connective Tissue Proper

Figure 4-9
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Connective Tissue Proper

Figure 49
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Connective Tissues
Fluid Connective Tissues
Blood and lymph
Watery matrix of dissolved proteins
Carry specific cell types (formed elements)
Formed elements of blood
red blood cells (erythrocytes)
white blood cells (leukocytes)
platelets
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Supportive Connective Tissues

Cartilage
Gel-type ground substance
For shock absorption and protection

Bone
Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals)
For weight support

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Supportive Connective Tissues

Cartilage Matrix
Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates
Ground substance proteins

Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) surrounded by

lacunae (chambers)

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Supportive Connective Tissues

Cartilage Structure
No blood vessels:
Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor
Perichondrium:
Outer, fibrous layer (for strength)
Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance)

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Supportive Connective Tissues

Types of Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage:
Stiff, flexible support
Reduces friction between bones
Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea

Elastic cartilage:
Supportive but bends easily
Found in external ear and epiglottis

Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage):

Limits movement
Prevents bone-to-bone contact
Pads knee joints
Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs

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Types of Cartilage

Figure 4-10
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Types of Cartilage

Figure 4-10
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Types of Cartilage

Figure 4-10
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Supportive Connective Tissues

Bone or osseous tissue
Strong (calcified: calcium salt deposits)
Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers)

Bone cells or osteocytes

Arranged around central canals within matrix
Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access
blood supply

Periosteum
Covers bone surfaces
Fibrous layer
Cellular layer
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Bone

Figure 4-11
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4-5 Membranes are physical

barriers of four types: mucous,
serous, cutaneous, and
synovial

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Membranes
Membranes
Are physical barriers
That line or cover portions of the body
Consist of:
An epithelium
Supported by connective tissues

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Membranes
Four Types of Membranes
Mucous membranes
Serous membranes
Cutaneous membrane
Synovial membranes

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Membranes
Mucous Membranes (Mucosae)
Line passageways that have external connections
In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive
tracts
Epithelial surfaces must be moist:
To reduce friction
To facilitate absorption and excretion

Lamina propria:
Is areolar tissue
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Membranes
Serous Membranes
Line cavities not open to the outside
Are thin but strong
Have fluid transudate to reduce friction
Have a parietal portion covering the cavity
Have a visceral portion (serosa) covering the
organs
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Membranes
Three Serous Membranes
Pleura:
Lines pleural cavities
Covers lungs

Peritoneum:
Lines peritoneal cavity
Covers abdominal organs

Pericardium:
Lines pericardial cavity
Covers heart
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Membranes

Figure 4-12
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Membranes
Cutaneous Membrane
Is skin, surface of the body
Thick, waterproof, and dry

Synovial Membranes
Line moving, articulating joint cavities
Produce synovial fluid (lubricant)
Protect the ends of bones
Lack a true epithelium
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Membranes

Figure 4-12
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4-6 The three types of muscle

tissue are skeletal, cardiac,
and smooth

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Muscle Tissue
Specialized for contraction
Produces all body movement
Three types of muscle tissue
Skeletal muscle:
Large body muscles responsible for movement

Cardiac muscle:
Found only in the heart

Smooth muscle:
Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels;
urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive, and reproductive
tracts)
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Muscle Tissue

Figure 4-13
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Muscle Tissue

Figure 4-13
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Muscle Tissue

Figure 4-13
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4-7 Neural tissue responds to

stimuli and conducts electrical
impulses throughout the body

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Neural Tissue
Also called nervous or nerve tissue
Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
Rapidly senses internal or external
environment
Processes information and controls
responses

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Neural Tissue
Neural tissue is concentrated in the
central nervous system
Brain
Spinal cord

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Neural Tissue
Two Kinds of Neural Cells
Neurons:
Nerve cells
Perform electrical communication

Neuroglia:
Supporting cells
Repair and supply nutrients to neurons
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Neural Tissue
Cell Parts of a Neuron
Cell body:
Contains the nucleus and nucleolus

Dendrites:
Short branches extending from the cell body
Receive incoming signals

Axon (nerve fiber):

Long, thin extension of the cell body
Carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination
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Neural Tissue

Figure 4-14
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4-8 The response to tissue

injury involves inflammation
and regeneration

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Tissue Injuries and Repair

Tissues respond to injuries to maintain
homeostasis
Cells restore homeostasis with two processes:
Inflammation
Regeneration

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Tissue Injuries and Repair

Inflammation = inflammatory response
The tissues first response to injury

Signs and symptoms of the inflammatory

response include
Swelling
Redness
Heat
Pain

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Tissue Injuries and Repair

Inflammatory Response
Can be triggered by:
Trauma (physical injury)
Infection (the presence of harmful pathogens)

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4-9 With advancing age,

tissue repair declines and
cancer rates increase

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Aging and Tissue Structure

Speed and efficiency of tissue repair
decrease with age due to
Slower rate of energy consumption
(metabolism)
Hormonal alterations
Reduced physical activity

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Aging and Cancer Incidence

Cancer rates increase with age
1 in 4 people in the United States develops cancer
Cancer is the #2 cause of death in the United States
Environmental chemicals and cigarette smoke cause
cancer

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