Chemical Process Industry

INDUSTRIAL GASES

What are industrial gases?

Industrial gases are a group of gases that are
specifically manufactured for use in a wide range of
industries,
which
include
oil
and
gas,
petrochemicals,
chemicals,
power,
mining,
steelmaking, metals, environmental protection,
medicine, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food,
water, fertilizers, nuclear power, electronics and
aerospace.

What defines an industrial gas?

Industrial gas is a group of materials that are specifically
manufactured for use inindustryand are also gaseous at
ambient
temperature
and
pressure.
They
arechemicalswhich can be anelemental gasor achemical
compoundthat is eitherorganicorinorganic, and tend to be
lowmolecular weightmolecules. They could also be
amixtureof individual gases. They have value as a
chemical; whether as afeedstock, in process enhancement,
as a useful end product, or for a particular use; as opposed
to having value as a "simple"fuel.

What defines an industrial gas?

The term industrial gasesis sometimes narrowly defined
as just the major gases sold, which are: nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon
dioxide,
argon,
hydrogen,
acetylene
and
helium.Many names are given to gases outside of this main
list by the different industrial gas companies, but generally
the gases fall into the categories "specialty gases", medical
gases, fuel gases or refrigerant gases. However gases
can also be known by their uses or industries that they
serve, hence "welding gases" or "breathing gases", etc.; or
by their source, as in "air gases"; or by their mode of supply
as in "packaged gases". The major gases might also be
termed "bulk gases" or "tonnage gases".

What defines an industrial gas?

In principle any gas or gas mixture sold by the "industrial gases
industry" probably has some industrial use and might be termed an
"industrial gas". In practice, "industrial gases" are likely to be a pure
compound or precise mixture, packaged or in small quantities, but with
highpurityor tailored to a specific use (e.g.oxyacetylene). Lists of the
more significant gases are listed in "The Gases" below.
There are cases when a gas is not usually termed an "industrial gas";
principally where the gas isprocessedfor later use of itsenergyrather
thanmanufacturedfor use as a chemical substance or preparation.
Theoil and gasindustry is seen as distinct. So, whilst it is true that
natural gas is a "gas" used in "industry" - often as a fuel, sometimes as
a feedstock, and in this generic sense is an "industrial gas"; this term is
not generally used by industrial enterprises forhydrocarbonsproduced
by thepetroleum industrydirectly fromnatural resourcesor in anoil
refinery.

What defines an industrial gas?

Thepetrochemicalindustry is also seen as distinct. So
petrochemicals (chemicals derived frompetroleum) such
asethyleneare also generally not described as "industrial
gases".
Sometimes the chemical industry is thought of as distinct
from industrial gases; so materials such as ammonia and
chlorine might be considered "chemicals" (especially if
supplied as a liquid) instead of or sometimes as well as
"industrial gases".
These demarcations are based on perceived boundaries of
these industries (although in practice there is some overlap),
and an exact scientific definition is difficult. To illustrate
"overlap" between industries:

What defines an industrial gas?

Manufacturedfuel gas(such astown gas) would historically have
been considered an industrial gas.Syngasis often considered to
be a petrochemical; although its production is a core industrial
gases technology. Similarly, projects harnessingLandfill
gasorbiogas,Waste-to-energyschemes, as well as Hydrogen
Production all exhibit overlapping technologies.
Helium is an industrial gas, even though its source is from
natural gas processing.
Any gas is likely to be considered an industrial gas if it is put in a
gas cylinder (except perhaps if it is used as a fuel)
Propane would be considered an industrial gas when used as a
refrigerant, but not when used as a refrigerant in LNG
production, even though this is an overlapping technology.

Where do they come from?

Who needs the industrial gases?

CARBON DIOXIDE

PROPERTIES

Chemical formula: CO2

Molecular weight: 44.01 g/mol
Boiling point: -78.5 oC
Melting point: -55.6 oC
Density: 1.977

PROPERTIES

Colourless
Odorless
Soluble in water, ethanol, and acetone

PROPERTIES

Linear covalent molecule

Acidic oxide
CO2 + H2O ==> H2CO3
CO2 + NaOH ==> NaHCO3
NaHCO3 + NaOH ==> Na2CO3 + H2O

USES
Large quantities of solid CO2 (i.e. in the form of dry
ice) are used in processes requiring large scale
refrigeration
CO2 reduces meat and food bacteria spoilage

USES

use in carbonation of beverages

treatment of drinking water
wastewater neutralization
greenhouse fertilizer
coolant
cleaning agent (as dry ice);
Transport refrigerant for food refrigeration
firefighting
paper recycling

USES
Carbon dioxide also plays an important role in
Photosynthesis.
Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct
photosynthesis, and greenhouses may enrich their
atmospheres with additional CO2 to boost plant
growth.

MANUFACTURE OF CO2
Sources of
- recovery
- recovery
- recovery
- recovery

CO2 for commercial production

from synthesis gas in ammonia production
as a by-product in the production of SNG
from the production of ethanol by fermentation
from natural wells

MANUFACTURE OF CO2
CO2 from the combustion of fuel oil in a
boiler plant generating the required steam
- oil, natural gas, or coke is burned, giving heat for 1380 kPa
steam and furnishing 10 to 15% CO2 at 345oC
- flue gas cooled, purified, and washed by passing through
two water scrubbers

MANUFACTURE OF CO2
- CO2 is removed by countercurrent selective absorption into
an aqueous solution of ethanolamines
- CO2 ethanolamine solution is pumped to a steam-heated
reactivator
- CO2 and steam leave the top of the reactivator passing
through a CO2 cooler to condense the steam, which returns
to the tower as reflux

MANUFACTURE OF CO2
- CO2 at about 200 kPa is purified from traces of H2S and
amines in a permanganate scrubber and dried
- CO2 is compressed, cooled, and liquefied

MANUFACTURE OF CO2
For dry ice
- liquid CO2 is reduced to atm with consequent partial

solidification
- evaporated gas returns through the precooler and is
recirculated with recompression and recooling of CO2
- CO2 snow is compressed to form a cake
- Dry ice cakes are sawed to 25-cm cubes of approx. 23kg weight

FLOWCHART FOR CO2 FROM FUEL OIL OR NATURAL GAS

MANUFACTURE OF CO2
Fermentation industry is another source of CO2

FLOWCHART FOR FERMENTATION CO2 PURIFICATION

INDUSTRIAL GAS
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

Brief History on Hydrogen

1520

-The first discovery of hydrogen gas

by Swiss Alchemist Philippus Aureolus
Paracelsus

1766

-Hydrogen was first identified as a

distinct element by British scientist
Henry Cavendish

1788

-French Chemist Antoine Lavoisier

gave hydrogen its name. hydro and
genes, meaning water and born
of

1800

-English scientists William Nicholson

and Sir Anthony Carlisle discovered
electrolysis

1920

-The first commercial technology the

electrolysis of water to produce pure
hydrogen

1959

-Francis T. Bacon built the first practical

hydrogen-air fuel cell Bacon Cell
-Harry Karl Ihrig demonstrated the first
fuel cell vehicle: a 20-hp tractor

1960

-The industrial production of hydrogen

shifted slowly towards a fossil-based
feedstock

1990

-The worlds first solar powered hydrogen

production plant at Solar-WasserstoffBayern, a research and testing facility in
southern Germany

Hydrogen
(H2)
odorless,
Colorless,

tasteless, flammable
and nontoxic gas at
atmospheric
temperatures and
pressures
The most abundant
element in the universe
Not an energy source,
but is an energy vector
or carrier

Hydrogen
Application
and Uses

Hydrogen Application and Uses

Metals
Chemicals,

Pharmaceuticals and
Petroleum
Glass and Ceramics
Food and Beverages
Electronics
Miscellaneous

Feedstock and
Process
Technologies

Feedstock
Fossil Resources
- Natural Gas
- Coal
Renewable Resources
- Biomass
- Water with input from
renewable energy sources

Renewable Energy Sources

- Sunlight
- Wind
- Wave or Hydro-Power

Process
Technologies
Reforming of Natural Gas
Gasification of Coal and

Biomass
Splitting of Water by:
Water-electrolysis
Photo-electrolysis
(Photolysis)
Photo-biological Production
(biophotolysis)
High Temperature
Decomposition

Thermochemical Sulfur-Iodine
Process

High-Temperature Decomposition
High-temperature splitting of water occurs at about 3000
C. At this temperature, 10% of the water is decomposed
and the remaining 90% can be recycled.
To reduce the temperature, other processes for high
temperature splitting of water have been suggested:
Thermo-chemical cycles
Hybrid systems coupling thermal decomposition and
electrolytic decomposition
Direct catalytic decomposition of water with separation
via a ceramic membrane (thermo-physic cycle)
Plasma-chemical decomposition of water in a doublestage CO2 cycle
0

Thermo-chemical Water Splitting

Cycles

The conversion of water into hydrogen and oxygen by a series

of thermally driven chemical reactions

They were extensively studied in the late 1970s and 1980s,
but have been of little interest in the past 10 years

*An example
of a thermochemical
process is the
Sulfur-Iodine
Cycle

Sulfur-Iodine Cycle Reactions

H2SO4 SO2 + H2O +

O2
I2 + SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4
+ 2HI
2HI I2 + H2
Overall Balance
H2O H2 + O2

Section 1 Bunsen Reaction and

Chemical recycle

Section 2 Sulfuric Acid Concentration and

Decomposition

Section 3 Hydrogen Iodide Decomposition

Thermo-chemical Water Splitting (SodiumIodide Cycle)

Advantages

Disadvantages

Net plant efficiencies up to

High Efficiency is attained at

~50%
Products are only Oxygen
and Hydrogen
Endothermic
All reagents used are
recycled; no effluents
Needs least development
among all other
thermochemical cycles

high temperature, 8000C *

Still a developing technology

Peak Process Temperature

(deg. C)

Environmental
Issues and
Concerns

3 Different Approaches to Alleviating the

Problems Associated with the Energy
Hunger
of
Humanity
1.Preventing the cause of global warming
to escape into the atmosphere (i.e. CO2
sequestration), known as the clean
fossil hydrogen option
2.A drastic efficiency increase in energy
usage
3.A transition from fossil fuels to
sustainable, carbon dioxide neutral ones

STEAM REFORMATION

STEAM REFORMATION

Steam reforming or Fossil fuel reformingis a process

used toproduce hydrogen fromhydrocarbonfuels such
asnatural gas and coals.

Steam Reformation: Flow Diagram

Hydrogen Production via Steam

Reformation
Feedstock Purification
Steam Reformation
Gas Conversion

-High Temperature Shift Conversion

-Low Temperature Shift Conversion
Purification
Pollution Control Technologies

Feedstock Purification
Removal of poisons such as sulphur and

chloride to maximize the life of the

downstream steam reforming and other
catalysts
The best way to remove sulphur
compounds is to convert the organic
sulphur species to H2S over a
hydrodesulphurization catalyst
C2H5SH + H2C2H6+ H2S

The next step is sulphur removal with an

absorbent

Feedstock Purification
Catalyst
-Molybdenum disulfide together with
smaller amounts of other metals
-Also converts any organic-chloride
species to give
HCl and also acts as an
absorbent for most problematic metal
species

Steam Reforming

CH4+ H2O CO + 3 H2

CxHy + H2O = x CO + (x + 0.5y)

H2
7001100C
Highly endothermic
The reaction takes place across a
nickel catalyst packed in tubes in a
fired furnace
An excess of steam is used to promote
the reforming reaction and avoid
carbon deposition on the catalyst.

Shift Conversion
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
Hreac=41.16kJmol1at298.15K

High Temperature Shift Conversion

(water-gas shift reaction)

Low Temperature Shift Conversion

High Temperature Shift Conversion

Increases the hydrogen yield

by driving the water-gas shift

reaction to the right
About 350C (662F) inlet
temperature
Lowers the CO level from 1015 mol % (dry) to 1-2 mol %
(dry)
Catalyst: Fe3O4(magnetite)

Low Temperature Shift Conversion

Enables increased hydrogen yield by further moving the

water-gas shift equilibrium in favour of H2

190-210C (374-410F) inlet temperature
Lowers the CO level from 1-2 mol % (dry) to 0.1-0.2 mol %
(dry)
Catalyst: Raney copper catalyst

Product Purification
Pressure Swing Absorption Unit
Four basic process steps:

Adsorption
Depressurization
Regeneration
Repressurization
99.99% product hydrogen

Environmental
Issues and
Concerns

 this method of producing hydrogen contributes to global

warming unless associated carbon emissions are captured

and stored

Methanation

removes traces of carbon oxides which may affect

downstream H2 user plants

CO + 3H2 = CH4 +H2O

CO2 + 4 H2 = 2CH4 + 2H2O

Carbon Capture Methods i.e. Post Combustion, Pre

Combustion

WATER ELECTROLYSIS

Thermodynamics

WATER ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysisis a method of using adirectelectric current(DC)

to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction.
Electrolysis of wateris thedecomposition of water(H 2O)
intooxygen(O2) andhydrogengas (H2) due to anelectric
currentbeing passed through the water.
Electrolyzer
Hydrogen produced via electrolysis can result in zero
greenhouse gas emissions, depending on the source of the
electricity used

Water Electrolysis: History

since the early 1900s
Nicholson and Carlisle were the first to discover the ability of

electrolytical water decomposing

By 1902 more than 400 industrial water electrolysis units
were in operation and in 1939 the first large water electrolysis
plant went into operation
In 1948, the first pressurized industrial electrolyser was
manufactured by Zdansky/Lonza.
In 1966, the first solid polymer electrolyte system (SPE) was
built by General Electric, and in 1972 the first solid oxide
water electrolysis unit was developed.

 The minimum necessary cell voltage to start water

electrolysis is the reversible (no losses in the process)

potential:

n=number of electrons transferred (n=2)

F=Faradays constant (F=96487 C/mol)

Alkaline
electrolysis
-Alkaline electrolysers use an
aqueous KOH solution
(caustic) as an electrolyte
that usually circulates
through the electrolytic cells.

 Common electrolyte: aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) at

30% concentration
Operation Conditions: 70-100oC and 1-30bar
Can utilize cost effective electrode materials (iron, nickel,
nickel compounds)
Diaphragm often asbestos
Efficiency: 70-80% (based on hydrogen HHV)

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis

PEM electrolysers require no liquid electrolyte (solid), which

simplifies the design significantly.

No caustic electrolyte in circulation
The heart of a PEM or SPE electrolyser is a proton exchange
membrane (or solid polymer) electrolyte
Disadvantage: limited lifetime of the membranes

PEM

The amount of gases produced per unit time is directly

related to the current that passes through the electrochemical

cell
In pure water at the negatively charged cathode,
areductionreaction takes place, with electrons (e) from the
cathode being given to hydrogen cations to form hydrogen
gas
At the positively charged anode, anoxidationreaction occurs,
generating oxygen gas and giving electrons to the anode to
complete the circuit
The minimum necessary cell voltage is Ecell = 1.21 V

 Anode structure: porous

titanium and activated by a

mixed noble metal oxide
catalyst
Cathode structure: porous
graphite current collector with
either Pt or a mixed oxide as
electrocatalyst
Membrane: Perfluorosulfonic
acid (PFSA)

Environmental
Issues and
Concerns

 The environmental impacts of electrolysis depend on the fuels and

technologies used to generate the electricity used in the process.

Use of conventional grid power would generate more global warming
pollution than steam methane reforming with natural gas.
Use of renewable power would allow for a truly low- or zeroemissions fuel cycle, but near-term benefits of renewable power may
be greater if used to displace other sources of electricity rather than
to create hydrogen.

Material Balance Problem

A plant produces H2 gas via steam reforming (assume CH4) . In the steam
reforming step, 1500kg of methane was to be entered per hour.
a) In the reformer: if steam was to be entered in excess (3:1 molar ratio),
how much steam should be entered per hour?
b)How much H2 gas can be produced per hour? (reformer + shift
converter)
c) How much CO2 is produced per hour? Assume complete conversion of
CO to CO2.
d)If only 80% of the CO produced from refining was converted into CO2
via water gas shift reaction, how much methane can be reproduced per
hour?

OXYGEN AND
NITROGEN

PROPERTIES
OXYGEN
-

formula: O2
weight: 32.00 g/mol
boiling point: -297.3oF
melting point: -361.9oF

NITROGEN
- formula: N2
- weight: 28.02 g/mol
- boiling point: -320.5oF
- melting point: -345.9oF

USES
OXYGEN
- production of steel in open-hearth or basic oxygen

furnaces
- used for removal of scale from billets by oxyacetylene
flame and in oxygen lances for cutting out imperfections
-used for disposal and conversion of refuse to usable byproducts
-used for aerating wastewater streams in the activated
sludge process

USES
Other uses of oxygen
- metalworking applications
- underground gasification
- fireflooding
- enhancement of combustion process in nonferrous
mettalurgical processes
- medical purposes in hospitals and aviators breathing
oxygen
-facilitates the forming and refining of glass

USES
NITROGEN
- used as a gaseous blanket that excludes oxygen
and moisture
- used for food freezing and as a refrigerant in the
processing and refrigerated transport of frozen foods
- used for tertiary oil recovery in oil fields
- used to maintain pressure in the wells

USES
Other uses of liquid nitrogen
- low temperature metal treatment
- shrink-fitting of parts
- deflashing of molded plastic and rubber parts
- cryobiology for storage of biological materials such
as whole blood and bull semen
- refrigerant in cryosurgical procedures

MANUFACTURE OF O2 AND N2
Oxygen and Nitrogen are produced principally by
the liquefaction and rectification of air
Since air is composed of mainly O2 and N2 with
some rare gases, air separation is commonly used
for the production of not only oxygen, but also
nitrogen and other rare gases.

TYPES OF AIR SEPARATION

Cryogenic Process
Pressure Swing Adsorption
Membrane Process

CRYOGENIC SEPARATION
Pioneered by Dr. Carl von Linde
process is used for medium to large scale plants which uses
refrigeration by the heat exchangers to let the passing air be cooled
for about 100K, letting the heavier oxygen settle at the bottom of
the distillation column and the nitrogen evaporate to the top.

Argon and other rare gases are collected in between the

column. A nitrogen-only plant is cheaper to operate
compared to oxygen-only plant because of the ratio of
nitrogen and oxygen in the air.

Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)

Nitrogen PSA
Activated carbon molecular sieve removes oxygen and other
gases from the stream. The nitrogen produced is about 95 to
99.5% purity with pressures from 6 to 8 atm.
Oxygen PSA
Alumina (Al2O3) is used to adsorb water vapor and zeolite
molecular sieve is used to remove nitrogen and other gases to
produce oxygen. Oxygen purity is about 90 to 95% with
presence of argon of 4.5 to 5% of the content,

MEMBRANE PROCESS
Pressurized air passes through a molecular
membrane, separating different gases. Nitrogen
produced is at much lower purity with about 90 to
95%. It is much cheaper to produce nitrogen from
membrane process compared to cryogenic process
but some industries require high purity of nitrogen
thus, membrane process is not used.

Pros and Cons of Different Air Separation

INDUSTRIAL GAS
Rare Gases - Ar, Ne, Kr, Xe

Brief History on rare gases

Year
1894

1898

1898
1898

Discoverer
Lord Rayleigh
and Sir William
Ramsay.
Sir William
Ramsay and
Morris Travers
Sir William
Ramsay
Sir William
Ramsay

Discovery
Argon

Neon

Krypton
Neon

Argon
(Ar)
is the third
noble
Argon

gas, in period 8, and it

makes up about 1% of the
Earth's atmosphere.
Argon has approximately
the same solubility as
oxygenand it is 2.5 times
as soluble in water as
nitrogen.
This chemically inert
element is colorless and
odorless in both its liquid

Neon (Ne)
Neon is the second-

lightest noble gas, its

colour is reddish-orange
in a vacuum discharge
tube and in neon lamps.
A colourless, odourless
gas.
Neon will not react with
any other substance.

Krpyton (Kr)
Krypton is a rare

atmospheric gas which is

odorless, colorless,
tasteless, nontoxic,
monatomic and
chemically inert.
Krypton is present in the
air at about 1 ppm.
It is characterised by its
brilliant green and orange

Xenon (Xe)
Xenon gas is odorless,

colorless, tasteless,
nontoxic, monatomic and
chemically inert.
The concentration of
Xenon gas in the
atmosphere, by volume
percent, is 8.7 x 10-6.

Rare gases
Application
and Uses

Argon Application and Uses

Argon is used to kill pigs humanely if there is
an outbreak of some disease on the farm.

 Shielding gas used in welding aluminium alloys or special

steels;

Argon is used as a shielding gas in many welding

applications.

Argon Application and Uses

fill gas in lamps;
lighting gas for gas discharge lamps;

Argon Application and Uses

gaseous extinguishing agent

Argon Application and Uses

Argon gas is used in graphite electric burners

to prevent the graphite from burning. The

graphite would burn in normal air with
oxygen present.
oxidation protection in the food industry;

Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Neon

(Ne) Application and Uses
Krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and neon (Ne) are mainly used as
fill gases and operating gases in lamps and lasers.

Modern xenon headlights turn night into day.

Xenon, mixed with

other rare gases is used
in eximer lasers for
surgery (for example in
eye surgery).

Feedstock and
Process
Technologies

Feedstock
Besides nitrogen and oxygen, the Earth
atmosphere contains about 0.93 % of argon,
0.0018 % of neon, 0.000524 % of helium,
0.000114 % of krypton, and 0.0000086 % of
xenon

Process Technologies

For gas mixture separation by condensation

methods

Manufacture of rare gases

Argonis obtained during the cryogenic manufacture of nitrogen and

oxygen, using a separate distillation column mounted alongside the

second (low pressure) column used to purify oxygen.
At this point in the distillation process, the feed is typically 89%
oxygen and 11% argon with only traces of nitrogen and is re-distilled
to obtain argon of approximately 98% purity, known as Industrial
Argon. When very high grade (99.999%) argon, Pure Liquid Argon
(PLAR), is needed, industrial grade argon is processed in a separate
plant, the Argon Purification Unit. This plant removes residual oxygen
by mixing the gas stream with hydrogen and passing the mixture over
a catalyst. Oxygen combines with hydrogen and the water formed is
removed by passage through a molecular sieve. Residual nitrogen is
then removed by further distillation at cryogenic temperatures.

Manufacture of rare gases

Neon(boiling point 27 K) does not condense out at

the temperatures used in air separation plants and is

withdrawn, with helium, and cooled to liquid nitrogen
temperature. The helium is removed by adsorption
on activated charcoal.
Krypton and xenon(boiling points 120 and 165 K
respectively) accumulate in the liquid oxygen and
are obtained by further distillation.

ACETYLENE

PROPERTIES

Chemical formula: C2H2

Molecular weight: 26.04g/mol
Boiling point: -119.6oF
Melting point: -113.4oF

USES
It has one of the hottest flame temperature of any
commercially available fuel gas (5,720F), making it an
excellent choice for welding, brazing and cutting steel
alloys less than two inches thick.
used as an instrumentation gas and a fuel gas and is the
most important of all starting materials for organic
synthesis

USES
Chloroprene and its polymer neoprene is the only
chemical made mostly of acetylene
Employed with oxygen in the manufacture of
industrial chemicals such as vinyl chloride,
acrylonitrile, acetic acid, trichloroethylene, and
polyvinylpyrrolidone.

MANUFACTURE OF C2H2
manufactured by the action of water on calcium
carbide:
CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2

Two principal methods for generating C2H2 from

CaC2 :
- Batch carbide-to-water or wet method takes place in a
cylindrical water shell surmounted by a housing with
hopper and feed facilities

MANUFACTURE OF C2H2
i. A sealed hopper is kept filled with crushed calcium
carbide and a slow moving worm carries the solid
forward to fall into a three metre high reaction
vessel (Figure 1).
ii. The reaction occurs spontaneously on mixing and
the gas formed passes via a hydraulic main to a
gas holder where it is stored above water.

MANUFACTURE OF C2H2
iii. The addition of water to the reaction vessel is regulated
manually. If the gas production becomes too rapid the
reaction is slowed by the addition of more water, which
lowers the temperature and hence the rate.
iv. The acetylene flows from the gas holder through a
series of trays containing mainly ferric chloride to remove
impurities such as hydrogen sulfide, phosphine and
ammonia.

MANUFACTURE OF C2H2
v. The gas then passes through a drier containing
calcium chloride. It is then compressed to 20
atmospheres and passed through another bed of
calcium chloride to remove the last traces of water.
vi. The compressed gas is then pumped into cylinders
or tankers where it dissolves in acetone to ensure it
can be transported and handled safely.

MANUFACTURE OF C2H2
The major byproduct from the process is slaked lime
Ca(OH)2 . This is dewatered in a series of settling
ponds then sent to a waste disposal company. Some
of the lime is dumped but the majority is used for
lowering the pH of effluent water.

He, SO2, CO and N2O

Because all his friends argon

Helium

Formula
He
Molecular Weight (lb/mol)
4.00
Critical Temperature (oF)
-450.3
Critical Pressure (psia)
33.0
Boiling Point (oF)
-452.1
Melting Point (oF)
n/a
Specific Gravity
0.138

Uses
Used with the mixture of Oxygen to provide a synthetic
atmosphere for deep sea divers and tunnel workers
Helium is employed to purge and pressurized spacecrafts

Production

Production

Sulfur Dioxide

Formula

SO2

Molecular Weight (lb/mol)

64.06
Critical Temperature (oF)
315.5
Critical Pressure (psia)
1142.0
Boiling Point (oF)
14.3
Melting Point (oF)
-103.9
Specific Gravity
2.285

Uses
Pure grade with less than 50 ppm of moisture is supplied
for refrigeration
Serves as a raw material for production of sulfuric acid
As a bleaching agent in textile and food industries

 An effective antichlor
Disinfectants in for wooden kegs and barrels
Controls fermentation of wine
A liquid solvent in petroleum refining

Production of SO2

Carbon Monoxide

Formula
CO
Molecular Weight (lb/mol)
28.01
Critical Temperature (oF)
-220.4
Critical Pressure (psia)
485.6
Boiling Point (oF)
-312.7
Melting Point (oF)
-337.1
Specific Gravity
0.985

Uses
Raw material in the production of methanol and other
alcohols
Used in making diisocyanate and ethyl acrylate
A chief constituent in making synthetic gases

Manufacturing

Through incomplete combustion

Bouduoard reaction
CO2 + C -> 2 CO
(H=170 KJ/mol)
Endothermic reaction of steam and carbon
H2O + C -> H2 + CO (H=131 KJ/mol)
Direct Oxidation of Carbon in a limited supply of oxygen
2C(s) + O2 -> 2CO(g)

Production of CO

Nitrous Oxide

Formula

N2O

Molecular Weight (lb/mol)

44.01
Critical Temperature (oF)
97.6
Critical Pressure (psia)
1053.3
Boiling Point (oF)
-128.3
Melting Point (oF)
-131.6
Specific Gravity
1.555

Uses
Used as laughing gas and NOS (Nitrous)

Usually used as an anesthetic

Production of N20