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Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Manual System
Automatic
Electro Mechanical
Strowger
Cross bar
Electronic
(Stored program control)
Space Division
Space
switch
Time
switch
Analog
Combination
switch
HISTORY OF TELEPHONY
Page 1
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
Manual System
1 Conventional system
This telephony system consisted of a simple local battery, simple transmission medium, telephone of handset
for speech, magneto bell for the ring and ringer generator for sending the ring signal. .
Caller
Telephone
Copper medium
called
Signaling method
2wires were used between the phones. Ringer potential was 75V a/c ringer and battery for each
local loop was -48V with line current of 20mA.
Disadvantages
Initial cost was high, system was blocking , maintenance was expensive & disconnection was unpredictable .
SWITCHING TECNOLOGIES
Page 2
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
Manual System
2. Common Battery
Subscriber set gets energized from a powerful battery at the exchange.Whenever subscriber
goes off hook, switch closes and current flows resulting in a lamp glow up on the Manual board.
The operator then connected manually the caller and gave a connection to the called person.
All offices from the 40s to 60s used this system. These systems are still used in remote areas of rural
India.
SUBCRIBER
LINE
DISTRIBUTION
MANUAL BOARD
MEDIA
SUBSCRIBERS
Signaling method
2wires were used between the phones. Ringer potential used was 75V a/c ringer and battery for each
local loop was -48V with line current of 20mA.
Disadvantage
Major disadvantage was that this system had no secrecy.
SWITCHING TECNOLOGIES
Page 3
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
Automatic Systems-Electromechanical switches
1. Strowger/ Cross bar Systems
Strowger was the person to introduce the concept of operator less systems. These systems replaced
the conventional manual boards. The system utilized the concept of dial tone to subscriber. The
subscriber would dial digits, which would be interpreted by the system through relays.
Crossbar switches were functionally similar, only the relay size was minimized. It utilized matrix
switching, and hence was faster than Strowger systems. Both these systems replaced all
manual boards during the late 60s.
Strowger/Cross bar systems
Subscribers
Connectivity to other
exchanges.
Subscribers
Signaling method
System utilized dial tone, 75V a/c ring and generators. All telephones had individual -48v battery for
local loop. 2wires were used between the exchange and the phones. Relay mechanism utilized selector
switches or switching matrix for processing the dial digits.
Disadvantages
Systems were bulky in size, consumed high power, were blocking and maintenance was expensive.
SWITCHING TECNOLOGIES
Page 4
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
Automatic Systems -Electronic Systems (Stored Program Control).
These Electronic Switching Systems utilize a processor for performing the switching functions.
It is a very flexible i.e. new features, facilities can be added within the control program of
the SPC systems. Switching within the SPC has various standards namely SDS and TDS as explained below.
1. Space division switching(SDS)
In SDS a dedicated path is established between calling and called subscriber for the entire duration
of the call. It is the same technique as was used in Strowger and Cross bar.
Stored
Program
Control
SWITCHING TECNOLOGIES
Page 5
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
Analog switching systems
In case of Analog switching sampled voltage levels are transmitted as they are, but
in Digital switching they converted into binary codes (0,1) and then transmitted.
Space Switch
If the coded values are transferred during the same interval from input to output,
the technique is called space switching.
2.Time Switching
If the coded values are stored and transferred to the output at later time interval,
this technique is called time switching.
3.Combination Switching
This system utilized a combination of Digital space switch feature as well
as Time switching features.
SWITCHING TECNOLOGIES
Page 6
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
SWITCHING GENERATIONS
First generation:
Manual switching/electronic switching
Analog switching and transmission
Stored Program Control
Manual board
Second generations
Part of Switching through, digital switching
Analog transmission
Blocking Architecture provided limited data transmission
Strowger/Crossbar Switch
Architecture
Fourth generation
Fully digital, distributed Architecture, LAN based
Current generation
Broadband digital switching and transmission through fiber
Definity
SWITCHING TECNOLOGIES
Page 7
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
STD/ISD CALL
LOCAL CALL
VOICE CALL
VOICE CALL
VOICE CALL
LEGEND
STD/ISD MEDIA
LOCAL MEDIA
Page 8
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
TELEPHONE SIGNALING
Signaling is required to establish communication between a sender and receiver prior to actual
communication
Following six steps are essential before communication takes place.
Action required by users
Action required at Exchange
Process within Exchange
1. Lift handset
off hook at A
Loop Extension at A
Dialed number
is processed
by Exchange
Loop Disconnect/Connect
or Tones are received
Ringer connected
to called party B
Loop Extension at B
SIGNALLING METHOD
Page9
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
LOOP EXTENSION
Subscriber A
Loop Extension
Switch or Exchange
Subscriber B
Legend
Local loop for subscriber A
SIGNALLING METHODS
Page10
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Abbreviation used
Usage
Dial tone
DT
RBT
Busy Tone
BT
NUT
Confirmation tone
CFT
SIGNALLING METHODS
Page11
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Dialing methods
Dialing is a signaling mechanisum to transmit telephone numbers to the local exchange. Dialing methods generally used are
Pulse dialing or Tone dialing.
Pulse dialing
Current
Loop extension between the user instrument and local exchange is broken and made for certain duration. This duration of make
and breaks are fixed. Local exchange is intelligent to understand the number dialed. Speed of dialing is calculated in PPS
(Pulse Per Seconds). Tp
Time
Loop
Open
Loop
Break
Closed
Make
= 10 pps.
SIGNALLING METHOD
Page12
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Tone dialing/Touch Tone/DTMF Dialing
Tone dialing uses a dual tone matrix to generate unique frequencies for each dial digit.
DTMF ( dual tone multi frequency) utilized unique frequencies for each digit. Tone dialing is faster.
Each digit needs 64 m sec only.
Advantages of Tone dialing
Wrong dialing can never occur in DTMF dialing.
Today DTMF signaling is utilized in variety of features other than dialing e.g. Voice Mail , I.V.R (Interactive Voice Response),
alpha numeric dialing for data applications.
SIGNALLING METHOD
Page13
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Frequencies utilized for DTMF dialing
Following frequencies are used for DTMF dialing
1209 Hz
2
ABC
GHI
JKL
7
PQRS
8
TUV
3
DEF
6
MNO
S
p
a
r
e
770 Hz
852 Hz
WXYZ
941 Hz
OPER
Totally 16 tones are available today only 12 are used. Rest are spare not utilized.
*, # can be programmed on local switch as additional features.
Each digit is marked with alphabets which are used for name dialing or alpha numeric dialing.
All frequencies are in speech band, hence telephone handset requires a feature called as flash for interupting
the speech path for functions like transfer or conference.
SIGNALLING METHOD
Page14
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Signaling types:
(RD) Ring down signaling
(LD) Loop disconnect
(OD)/(E&M) Out of dial/ Ear and mouth
(E-1,T-1) 2MB/1.54MB
(ISDN)-Bri/Pri
SIGNALLING METHOD
Page15
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Ring down signaling
This signaling is used between the following
areas as mentioned
A) Between Telephone and Switch
B) Between Switch and local exchange (D.O.T)
C) Between D.O.T to its subscriber
Picture a case where Subscriber A of
Definity switch is in communication with Subscriber B of
the Local (D.O.T) switch.
Six steps of communication remain same as mentioned in the
earlier (Slide # 11) called as Ring Down signaling.
Ring is always send from the switch
to the telephone. Hence it is called Ring Down signaling.
Pulse or tones are always sent from telephone to Switch
Switch
Pulse or
Tone
DOT/BSNL/PPT
Pulse or
Tone
Pulse or
Tone
Ring
Ring
Ring
Ring Down
Signaling
Legend:
Line interface
CO Trunk interface
Pulse/tone direction
Ring direction
SIGNALLING METHOD
Page16
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Loop Disconnect (LD) Signaling
Loop Disconnect
Signaling
Switch- A
Pulse or
Tone
Ring
Switch- B
Pulse or
Tone
Pulse or
Tone
B
Ring
Ring Down
Signaling
Legend:
Line interface
LD Trunk interface
SIGNALLING METHOD
Page17
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Out of Disconnect (OD) Signaling
This signaling is used between two switches. All
signals are above the voice band, hence this
signaling is called OD signaling.
This signaling is used when switches are linked
via leased lines which involves large distances
(e.g. v-sat, Microwave or DOT leased lines)
Between Switches either Pulses or DTMF tones are exchanged.
Ring is not utilized
A
OD Signaling
Pulse or
Tone
Ring
Signaling characteristics
All characteristics are same as LD Signaling.
Signaling is done on the Signaling leads SS, SR
and speech signal is on LA,LB leads.
4, 6 wires are used between 2 switches.
-48 V as battery feed is on Signal send Lead (SS) and Signal Receive (SR)
Pulse dia1ing at 10/20 pps is done between SS and Signal ground
In case of Tone dialing Tones are sent on Speech limbs.
Telephones A, B are rung individually by respective Switch A
or B.
Switch- A
Switch- B
Pulse or
Tone
Pulse or
Tone
B
Ring
Ring Down
Signaling
Legend:
Line interface
E&M Trunk interface
SIGNALLING METHOD
Page18
Page1
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Signaling Detail :
OD Signaling
Pulse or
Tone
Switch- A
Switch- B
.
Ring
SS
SR
LA
LB
SG
Pulse or
Tone
SS
SR
Ring
SG
Ring Down
Signaling
Legend:
Line interface
E&M Trunk interface
SIGNALLING METHOD
Page19
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
PCM (Pulse code modulation)
Current Technologies utilize PCM technology. Each line/ trunk port is subjected to PCM. This converts speech signal
into 8 bit(0/1) format through a codec (Coder, decoder).
Conversion of Analog speech to a digital bit stream is as follows.
PCM building blocks
Speech signal between 300Hz and 4KHz are only taken for processing. These frequencies are selected as they carry
relevant speech information.Following blocks are used for PCM.
Analog
Speech
Low
Pass
Filter
Sampling
Quantizer
Coder
Digital
signal
PCM/TDM TECHNOLOGY
Page20
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
2.Sampling (contd)
Analog signal from a line/trunk port is sampled
at finite duration of 125 u sec (Ts sampling frequency).
3. Quantization
Naturally sampled signal is then subjected to quantization
and companding which use either A law or u law, to
quantify the sampled pulse into digitized format.
T
Sampling Signal with pulses
of finite duration
S(t)
Codec
Output
T
Digitized voice sample after
quantization/companding
01010000
To
01011111
T1
PCM/TDM TECHNOLOGY
Page21
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Channel 0
Channel 1
Channel 2
0 1 1 0
Channel 3
...
Channel 31
1 0 1
PCM/TDM TECHNOLOGY
Page22
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
Multiplexing is a technique whereby a number of independent signals can be combined into a
composite signal suitable for transmission over a common channel.
Low
Pass
Filter
Low
Pass
Filter
Pulse
Modulator
Commutator
Transmission
Channel
Pulse
Demodulator
Decommutator
Low
Pass
Filter
Low
Pass
Filter
PCM/TDM TECHNOLOGY
Page23
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Time Slot Inter changer ( TSI)
Time slot inter changer inter changes digital speech values on time basis.
Block diagram of a TS I. For 256 x 256 channel
Read highway
Digital
signals
from each
codec
a
b
CH 0
(SPM)
Speech path memory
CH 0
CH1
CH1
CH 15
CH 15
CH 255
CH 255
Send highway
b
CH 0
CH1
CH 15
Interchanged
Digital
signals
to each
codec
CH 255
Hold memory
Read highway and Send highway are parallel
buses containing digital speech
All information from read highway is serially
transmitted to SPM
Hold memory contains address where channel
needs to be switched.
Depending on Hold memory address the SPM
writes randomly into Send highway
15
CH 0
CH1
CH 15
CH 255
PCM/TDM TECHNOLOGY
Page24
Page2
THE COMPLETE
PICTURE
BASICS
OF SIGNALLING
ISD
PBX
STD
Last mile
on copper
DOT
NETWORK
N
ISD
Local
Exch.
y
ivit
ect
n
con
Cellular
Network
Voice
Data
Video
Fax
Paging
Network
Vsat connectivity
Legend:
Copper Media
Copper, fiber, Radio(Media)
Fiber, Radio, Sattelite (Media)
Fiber, Radio,V-sat, Sattelite
(Media)
G.S.M switching
Page 25
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
SWITCH
(MSC)
VOICE CALL
.
BSC
BSC
BTS
MOBILE
SWITCHING
EQUIPMENT
CELLULAR
Sub..
BTS
LEGEND
LOCAL MEDIA
Mobile
office
communication
BSC
Page 26
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
The basic principles of Cellular systems were established by Bell laboratories in 1949 but was
not until the early 1980 that technology allowed real commercial networks to built and service
offered to the public
Systems were developed at different times in different countries and subjected to a variety of
different constraints such as frequency, channel spacing, etc.
Different incompatible cellular standard emerged throughout the world
One such notable system is GSM (Global Systems for Mobile communication)
Cellular network configuration:
(MSC)
BSC
BTS
MOBILE
SWITCHING
EQUIPMENT
(M.T.N.L / D.O.T / P.T.T)
CELLULAR
Sub..
Network management
INTRODUCTION
(Cellular switching)
Page 27
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
Principles of Operation:
In the cellular radio system, the area to be covered is divided up into a no. of small areas called
cells, with one radio base station (BTS) positioned to give radio coverage to one cell.
Each base station is connected by a fixed link to a mobile services switching center (MSC), which
is linked to a digital telephone exchange with special software to handle the mobility aspects of its
users.
Most cellular networks consists of a number of MSCs each with their own BSs, and interconnections by
means of fixed links.
The MSCs interconnection to the (PSTN) for both outgoing and incoming calls
A cellular network will be allocated a no. of radio frequencies, or channels, for use across its coverage
area,this no. being dependent upon the amount of spectrum made available by the licensing authority
and the channel spacing of the technical standard used by the network
The radio channels are grouped together into a no. of channel sets, and these sets are then allocated
to the cells. Each channel will be re used many times by the network.
Radio planning is essential for every cellular network operator to build these cells. The planning includes
aspects like cell repeat pattern, Co-channel interface, radio propagation, coverage area, cell capacity,
no of channels requirement , density of calls in each area etc...
NETWORK CONFIGURATION
(Cellular switching)
Page 28
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
(B.S.N.L / D.O.T / P.T.T)
SWITCH
VOICE CALL
SWITCH
PAGING EQUIPMENT
BS
VOICE CALL
Subscriber
Pager
LEGEND
LOCAL MEDIA
PAGER MEDIA
Modem
communication
Page29
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
PAGING TECHNOLOGIES
In 1970 Bell Canada introduced its wide area digital paging systems, which utilized digital formats, greater system
address capacities, much greater battery economy, faster call rates, pager size reduction, additional storage of calls
and messages in memory.
Subsequently Sweden inaugurated its national paging service using a sub carrier on the national broadcast system in
the same year
North America systems supplied systems based on the Golay code format.
Japan had already opened the NTT digital systems in 1978 .
In 1978 UK agreed a common digital paging systems, POCSAG (Post Office Code Standard Advisory Group) with
recommendation from 16 major pager manufactures.
Todays new generation of high speed digital code formats have been formulated e.g. FLEX developed by Motorola
Inc. and APOC developed by Philips Telecom.
POCSAG at 2400bits/sec can provide 32k users per channel
ERMES at 6250 bits/sec can provide 145k users per channel
FLEX at 64kps can provide up to 157k per users per channel
APOC with PAM/FM modulation tech. At 64kps provide up to 395k users per channel
All these capabilities are for 40 characters alphanumeric messages.
TELECOM
(Pager switching)
Page 30
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
Principles of Operation:
Paging is a one way radio alerting system.
The direction of transmission is from a fixed transmitter to an individual. It is a simple extension of the PSTN network
The paging receiver is simple box, which alerts the the user in the event of message sent to him
Some pagers have a digital readout others only have calling number display.
These paging systems operate on the VHF or UHF bands with 3-khz band width.
Transmitter have 1 to 5 watts of output and pager receivers have sensitivity of 10 to 100 micro volts
Radio frequency bands for pagers are typically 26.1-50 MHz, 68-88 MHz, 146-174 MHz, 450-470 MHz or 806- 960 MHz
To cover a service area effectively no. of radio paging transmitters are utilized. These transmitters operate either
sequentially or simultaneously.
POCSAG Systems are designed to share a channel with codes for simultaneous and sequential transmission multi transmitter
operation at the normal transmission speed of 512 bps. The code format can handle over 8 million addresses and can be
expanded.
Bulk paging can also be done with the help of modem connectivity through interactive IVR using TAP protocol. These are
generally used by courier coy. , banks for delivery systems and transactions.
(Pager switching)
Page 31
BASICS OF SIGNALLING
Switch
SwitchA
Up link
V-sat
hub
Switch- B
Down link
E&M
or
2MB interface
LEGEND
LOCAL MEDIA
V-SAT MEDIA
Page32
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
Principles of Operation:
Very Small Aperture Terminal (V-SAT) are defined by their antenna aperture (diameter)
which can vary from (0.5)mts to (2)mts.
There are three underlying reasons for the use of V-SAT networks
1. Economically alternative to establish data network, particularly if traffic is to/from
central facility, usually a corporate head quarter to/from outlying remotes.
2. To by pass telephone companies or leased lines
3. To provide quality of service through better telecommunication connectivity where
other means are substandard or non existent
Figure shows the hub/V-SAT concept of a star network with
the hub at center.
HUB
(V-sat switching)
Page 33
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
(V-sat switching)
Page34
BASICS OF TELEPHONY
V-SAT Transponder Operation:
Total V-SAT system may occupy no more than 1 MHz of transponder space. Larger V-SAT may require more transponder
bandwidth. Typical V-SAT system operation with a 1-MHz allocation on a satellite transponder.
HUB
(V-sat switching)
Page 35