Site Surveying

Unit 1 - Introduction

Definitions
PLOT:
means the area of contiguous parcel of land enclosed by definite
boundaries over which the applicant has legal right for development
SITE:
The place at which construction work is undertaken; a building site.
An area of land designated by a planning application for a specific
development, or one for which a proposed building is to be designed.
LAND:
an area or plot of ground on the earths surface.
SURVEYING:
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions
of points
above, on, or beneath the earths surface and locating the points in
the field.

Short History of Surveying

1.

Surveying had its beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC

Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation. Divisions
were washed away by annual floods.

ROPE-STRETCHERS Egyptian surveyors were created to

relocate the land divisions (measurements were made with
ropes having knots at unit distances).

Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian

monuments

2.

Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed Geometry.

Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments

Diopter (a form of level).

Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the

3.

Roman roads, aqueducts, and land division systems.

Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional

organization

Developed several instruments:

Groma cross instrument used to determine lines and

right angles

Libella A frame with a plumb bob used for leveling

Chorobates 20 straight edge with oil in notch for leveling

Middle Ages: land division of Romans continued in Europe.

4.

Quadrans square brass frame capable of turning angles up

to 90 and has a graduated scale developed by an Italian
named Von Piso.

5.

18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for
mapping and marking land claims caused extensive
surveying, especially by the English.

1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public

lands into one mile square sections

30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System

(also called the Rectangular System)

1807: United States Geological Survey founded to

establish an accurate control network and mapping

Famous American Surveyors: George Washington,

Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln and
many more.

6.

20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced,

population increased, and land value caused development of
licensure for surveyors in all states.

Educational requirements for licensure began in the early

1990s

Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning

using global positioning systems, construction machine
control, and lidar (scanning) mapping

Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and

geographic information systems (GIS)

Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into

the 21st century

The work of the surveyor consists of

5 phases:
1.

Decision Making selecting method, equipment and final

point locations.

2.

Fieldwork & Data Collection making measurements and

recording data in the field.

3.

Computing & Data Processing preparing calculations based

upon the recorded data to determine locations in a useable
form.

4.

Mapping or Data Representation plotting data to produce a

map, plat, or chart in the proper form.

5.

Stakeout locating and establishing monuments or stakes in

the proper locations in the field.

Categories of Surveying
1.

Plane Surveying surveying with the reference base for

fieldwork and computations are assumed to be a flat
horizontal surface.

Generally within a 12 mile radius the pull of gravity is

very nearly parallel to that at any other point within the
radius and thus horizontal lines can be considered
straight.

2.

Geodetic Surveying surveying technique to determine

relative positions of widely spaced points, lengths, and
directions which require the consideration of the size and
shape of the earth. (Takes the earths curvature into
account.)

7 Types of Surveys:
1.

Photogrammetry mapping utilizing data obtained by

camera or other sensors carried in airplanes or satellites.

2.

Boundary Surveying establishing property corners,

boundaries, and areas of land parcels.

3.

Control Surveying establish a network of horizontal and

vertical monuments that serve as a reference framework for
other survey projects.

4.

Engineering Surveying providing points and elevations for

the building Civil Engineering projects.

5.

Topographic Surveying collecting data and preparing maps

showing the locations of natural man-made features and
elevations of points o the ground for multiple uses.

7 Types of Surveys:
6.

Route Surveys topographic and other surveys for long

narrow projects associated with Civil Engineering projects.

7.

Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.

Hydrographic Surveying mapping of shorelines and the
bottom of bodies of water.

Also known as bathymetric surveying.

Chain Surveying

Chain Surveying
Simplest method of surveying
Measurements are taken in field and the rest work, such as
plotting calculation etc. are done in office
Most suitable adapted to small plane areas with very few
details
Carefully done, gives accurate results.
Necessary requirements : chain, tape, ranging rod, arrows and
sometime cross staff
System of surveying in which sides of various triangles are
measured directly in the field and NO angular
Adopted when level of accuracy required is not high.

Execution
1. Reconnaissance: The preliminary inspection of the area to be
surveyed.
2. Marking stations
3. Reference sketches
4. Running survey line

Application
Chain survey is suitable when
1.Ground is fairly level and simple
2.Plans are required on large scale e.g., fields
3.When area is small in extent
Chain survey is not suitable when
1.For large areas
2.When too many details are not required
3.Wooden countries
4.Undulating areas

Types of Chains and Tapes

Before the ability to make steel rods and bands, sticks were cut
into lengths of 16.5 (Rod) and they were laid end to end to
measure.
GUNTERS CHAIN
66 long with 100 link w/each link being 7.92 inches or 66 feet
long
Developed by Edmund Gunter in 1600s in England and made
with individual wires with a loop at each end connected
Chain had between 600-800 wearing surfaces which with hard
use would wear and cause chain to elongate
Measurements were recorded in chains and links
7ch 94.5lk = 7.945 ch = 7.945 X 66/ch = 524.37
1 chain = 4 rods; 80 chains = 1 mile

Types of Chains and Tapes

Surveyors and Engineers Tapes
Made of to 3/8 wide steel tapes in 100; 200; 300
lengths
Multiple types of marking and graduation:
Available in chains, feet, and metric
Graduated:
Throughout feet and tenths marked the entire length
Extra foot feet marked the length of the tape with
additional foot at the 0 end graduated in tenths and
hundreds of the foot

Types of Chains and Tapes

Engineers Chain
Same construction as Gunters Chain, but each link is 1.0
long and was used for engineering projects
Invar Tapes
Made of special nickel steel to reduce length variations due
to temperature changes
The tapes are extremely brittle and expensive
Used most of the time for standard comparison of tapes
Cloth, Fiberglass, and PVC Tapes:
Lower accuracy and stored on reels. Used for measurement
of 0.1 accuracy requirements

Accessories
1.Chaining Pins set of 11, used to mark the tape lengths
2.Hand Level used to determine required plumbing height
3.Plumb Bob used to transfer the mark from the tape to ground
4.Tension Handle used to maintain correct tension on tape
Gunters Chain

Modern Chains
Modern chains are metal strips 100 feet long. These chains
are three standard types.
1.
Fully graduated

2.
First foot (cut chain)

3.
Extended foot (add chain)

Reading Surveying Steel Chain

The first step in reading a surveying chain is to
determine the units that are used.

Knowing that the chain is 100 feet long, having numbers from
0 to 100 indicates that each number is one foot of distance.
Each foot has nine (9) lines (10 spaces), therefore each line
represents 1/10 or 0.10 of a foot.
The reading for this example is 98.6 ft.
Note: this a fully graduated chain

Reading A Cut Chain

The first foot or cut chain gets its name from the fact that the
whole foot reading at the head of the chain must be reduced
cut by the partial foot.

In this example the pin at the head is on 99 feet and the rear
pin is on 0.4 feet. The distance is 99 - 0.4 or 98.6 feet.

Reading An Add Chain

The extended foot (add) chain gets its name because an
additional foot is added to each end of the chain.
The partial foot is added to the foot value at the head of the
chain.
In this example the head pin is on 99 feet an the rear pin is at
0.7 feet. The distance is 99 + 0.7 or 99.7 ft.

Steel chain on holder

To rewind chain on holder:
1.Hold holder vertical in the
left hand.
2.Attach 100 foot end of the
tape with the numbers up.
3.Wind tape up rotating the
handle clockwise.
4.Remember to wipe tape
with a dry cloth as it is wound
onto the handle.

Triangulation

Triangulation
A surveying method that measures the angles in a triangle
formed by three survey control points.

Survey Instruments

Transit

Transit is the most universal of

surveying instruments primary
use is for measurement or
layout of horizontal and vertical
angles also used to determine
vertical and horizontal distance
by stadia, prolonging straight
lines, and low-order leveling.

Components of the Transit

1.

Alidade Upper part

2.

Horizontal limb Middle part

3.

Leveling-head assembly Lower

part

Transit
ALIDADE (UPPER PART)
Circular cover plate w/2 level vials and is connected to a solid
conical shaft called the inner spindle.
Contains the vernier for the horizontal circle
Also contains frames that support the telescope called STANDARDS
Contains the vertical circle and its verniers, the compass box, the
telescope and its level vial
HORIZONTAL LIMB (MIDDLE PART)
This is rigidly connected to a hollow conical shaft called the outer
spindle (which holds the inner spindle)
Also has the upper clamp, which allows the alidade to be clamped
tight
Also contains the horizontal circle

Transit
LEVELING-HEAD ASSEMBLY (LOWER PART)
1.

4 leveling screws

2.

Bottom plate that screws into tripod

3.

Shifting device that allows transit to move to 3/8

4.

ball that allows transit to tilt when being leveled

5.

The SPIDER 4-arm piece which holds the outer spindle

6.

Lower clamp allows rotation of outer spindle

Transit

Transit - Properties
1.Designed to have proper balance between:
Magnification and resolution of the telescope
Least count of the vernier and sensitivity of the plate and
telescope bubbles
2.Average length of sight of 300 assumed in design
3.Specifications of typical 1 gun:
Magnification 18 to 28X
Field of view - 1 to 130
Minimum focus 5 to 7
X-hairs usually are + with stadia lines above and below
The transit is a repeating instrument because angles are
measured by repetition and the total is added on the plate

Operation of Transit
9 Steps:
1.

Set up over point B and level it. Loosen both motions

2.

Set up the plates to read 0 and tighten the upper clamp.

(Upper and lower plates are locked together)

3.

Bring Vernier to exactly 0 using upper tangent screw and

magnifying glass.

4.

Sight on point A and set vertical X-hair in center of point,

by rotating transit

5.

Tighten the lower clamp and entire transit is locked in

6.

Set X-hair exactly on BS point A using the lower tangent

screws. At this point the vernier is on 000 and the Xhairs are on BS

Operation of Transit
7.

Loosen the upper clamp, turn instrument to right until you

are near pt. C. Tighten the upper clamp

8.

Set vertical X-hair exactly on pt. C using the upper tangent

screw.

9.

Read on vernier

If repeating , loosen lower motion and again BS on A

(using only lower motion), and then loosen upper motion
to allow to accumulate.

If an instrument is in adjustment, leveled, exactly centered,

and operated by an experienced observer under suitable
conditions, there are only 2 sources for error.
1.

Pointing the telescope

2.

Reading the plates

Transit
ADVANTAGES
1.Better accuracy obtained through averaging
2.Disclosure of errors by comparing values of the single and
multiple readings
HANDLING A TRANSIT
Hints on handling and setting-up the transit
Pick up transit by leveling head and standards
When carrying the transit, have telescope locked in position
perpendicular to the leveling head with objective lens down
When setting-up, keep tripod head level and bring plumb
bob to within of point to be set over, then loosen leveling
screws enough to enable you to move transit on plate, then
move transit until it is over the point

Telescope, Scales
TELESCOPE:
Similar to that of dumpy level, but shorter
Parts objective, internal focusing lens, focusing wheel, X-hairs,
& eyepiece

SCALES:
Horizontal plate or circle is usually graduated into 30 or 20
spaces with graduations from 0 to 360 in both directions.
Circles are graduated automatically by machine and then
scanned to ensure accuracy
They are correct to with in 2 of arc

Vernier
Least count = Lowest # of reading possible determines
accuracy
Least Count = (Value of smallest division on scale)/(# of
divisions on vernier)
Scale Graduation

Vernier Divisions

Least Count

30

30

20

40

30

15

45

20

10

60

10

Vernier
The vernier is always read in the same direction from zero as
the numbering of the circle, i.e. the direction of the increasing
angles
Typical mistakes in reading verniers result from
Not using magnifying glass
Reading in the wrong direction from zero, or on the wrong
side of a double vernier
Failing to determine the least count correctly
Omitting 10, 15, 20, 30 when the index is beyond those
marks

Vernier
3 Types of Verniers
1.

Direct or single vernier reads only in one direction &

must be set with graduations ahead of zero

2.

Double vernier can be read clockwise or

counterclockwiseonly is used at a time

3.

Folded vernier avoids a ling vernier plate

of the graduations are placed on each side of the

index mark

Use is not justified because it is likely to cause errors.

Angle scale with Vernier

Main scale
reading

Reading of the scale : 26.5o

Line of coincident

Vernier scale

Mechanical instruments use Vernier scales to improve the

precision of the instrument.
The Vernier scale divides the last unit on the main scale into
another set of fractional parts.
The main scale is read at the zero (0) on the Vernier scale.
The Vernier scale is read at the line of coincident.

Double Vernier Scale

Rotation

The double Vernier is read using the same method.

One additional step when reading a double Vernier is deciding
which side of the Vernier should be read.
This is determined by the direction of rotation of the
instrument.
[Note: the angle scale is stationary and the Vernier scale
rotates]
Clockwise rotation (right turned) = Left side

Odometer Wheel

Odometer wheels use

different units on the
odometers.
Insure you know the
measuring units before you
start to use the wheel.

Optical - Range finder

Range finders are used to
measure distance.
Two primary types are
optical and EDM.
Optical range finders use
lenses, mirrors and
principles trig to determine
distance.

Range finder - EDM

EDM = Electronic distance
measuring
Many different models.
Many different features.
Many different prices.
(Precision)
PRINCIPLES OF EDM
Laser light and other signals travel at the speed of light.
If you know speed and time, you can calculate distance.
Multiple signals are used to determine partial cycles.
Velocity =

Distance
Time

Distance = Velocity x Time

Hand level
This is the simplest
type of hand level.
It is useful for
estimating slope &
elevation changes.

This instrument is
called the Abney
level. It can be
used to measure
slope, vertical
angles and stadia
distances.

Rod

7.04

The Philadelphia style rod is seven

(7) feet long and has a scale that
measure to 1/100 of a foot.
Each whole foot is marked with a

6.73

large red number.

A small red foot number is located
at the 1/3 foot mark.
The black numbers between each
red foot mark are 1/10th of a foot.

6.33

The 1/100ths are read by reading

the transitions between white and
black.

6.15

Rod with Target

The use of a target improves the
accuracy of the readings and
increases the readable distance
between the rod and the instrument
Using the Vernier scale on the target,
distances can be read to 1/1000 of a
foot.
A rod with target can be used four
ways.
1. Direct read
2. Indirect read
3. High rod
4. Extended rod

Dumpy (Wye) Level

Leveling a four (4) legged

instrument

Left thumb rule

Automatic Level

These levels are called automatic because the level will

complete the leveling process once it is close to level.

Total Station
A total station is an electronic
transit and an EDM combined
into one instrument.
Add in a microprocessor, laser
plummet and other options and
you have the instrument of
choice for ground based
surveying.
Some may require a prism, but
others are reflectorless.

Rocking the rod

Rocking the rod should be used when a rod level is

not available.

Additional Equipment

Plumb Bob

Surveyors
nail

Range
pole