Class 1 Fundamentals 19 May 09

The Electrix
1988 Homda CRX

Restored & converted to electric in 2000
Range 40 km Top speed 130 kph
Copyright - EVCO/Ric
Electric Vehicle Council of Ottawa

Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles
Conversion Course
Class 1 20 May 2009
EV Fundamentals
EV Fundamentals
Basic Elements of an EV
Basic Electricity
Energy and Power
Batteries, Batteries, Batteries
Motor
Controller
Battery Pack
Battery Charger
Ancillary Electronics
Block Diagram
'Ignition'
Switch
'Start'
+
12 V
Battery
Curtis
Controller
Advanced
DC Motor
144 V +ve
Voltmeter
Main
Contactor
Battery Pack
Ammeter
500
Amp
144 V -ve
Current
Shunt
Accelerator
+
DC/DC
Converter
+
-
'Pot' Box
Motor
AC Motors
Higher efficiency
No brushes
Complex drive electronics
Generally not suitable for amateur EVs
Series Wound DC Motor

Stator and rotor in series
Stator and rotor fields add, so torque goes up as square of current
High starting torque
Simple drive electronics variable current
Not suitable for regenerative braking
Most popular for amateur EVs
Motor
Shunt Wound DC Motor
Stator and rotor in parallel

Stator winding has high resistance
Torque increases linearly with current
Can be used for regenerative braking
Compond Wound DC Motor

Combination series and shunt wound
Has advantages of both
Complex drive electronics
Permanent Magnet and Brushless DC Motors

Similar performance to shunt wound motors
High efficiency
Series Wound DC Motor
Stator and rotor have very low resistance

High current hence high torque at low speeds
Motor generates back EMF (voltage) as it speeds up

Higher battery voltage allows more current at higher revs hence increased
power
Potential motor runaway at low load

Do not apply voltage when not in gear or with clutch disengaged
Controller
For Series Wound DC Motor

Modern solid-state variable current motor drive
Very High Power
Up to 150 Volts
Up to 500 Amps
75 Kilowatts
Requires large heat sink with good air flow for cooling
Battery Pack
Practical pack voltage - 96 volts to 144 volts
Multiple 6, 8, or 12 volt batteries

16 x 6 volts = 96 volts
Higher voltage = more cells (2 volts per cell)

144 volts = 72 cells
Range limited by weakest cell
10
Battery Charger
On-board charger
Input - 115 or 230 volts AC
Single pack charger or individual charger per battery
Interlock to prevent starting EV with charger plugged in
Battery pack must be vented while charging
explosive hydrogen released
11
Ancillary Electronics
Battery voltage and current meters
Battery monitoring system
Battery venting and cooling
Battery heater
Car heater
Charger for auxiliary 12 volt battery
Vacuum pump for brakes
12
Basic Electricity
Water Analogy
Voltage, Current, Resistance (Ohms Law)
Serial and Parallel Circuits
Electrical Power and Energy
13
Basic Electricity
Water Analogy
Voltage - water pressure
Current - water flow
Resistance - pipe diameter (smaller diameter equals greater

resistance)
The higher the water pressure, the greater the water flow
The smaller the pipe diameter, the less the water flow
14
Basic Electricity
Voltage, Current, Resistance
Voltage - Volts (V)
Current - Amps (I)
Resistance - Ohms (R)
Ohms Law:
V
I=
R
15
Basic Electricity
Voltage, Current, Resistance
Current increases as voltage increases and resistance decreases
Voltage sometimes referred to as electro-motive force (EMF)

Back EMF was discussed earlier in relation to DC motors
16
Basic Electricity
Serial and Parallel Circuits
Batteries may be serial or serial/parallel connected
Serial connection increases voltage
Parallel connection provides more current
Buddy pairs of batteries are sometimes used with lower capacity

batteries to increase range
17
Basic Electricity
Power - watts (W)
The instantaneous power is equal to the voltage times the current
P=VI
Transposing Ohms law V = I R
Therefore P = I2R
This shows that wiring losses square with increasing current
18
Basic Electricity
Energy - joules (J)
Energy is power integrated over time (watt/hours)
Energy is used to overcome wind and rolling resistance, to

accelerate, and to climb hills
Assuming a relatively constant battery voltage, the total energy

from the battery pack is proportional to the total current drawn
Important when calculating required battery pack capacity
19
Energy and Power

Basic Physics - Mechanical
Force, Work, Power
Total Energy and Peak Power
Relationship to Electrical Energy and Power
20
Energy and Power

Force, Work, Power
Newton's First Law: Mass and Inertia

An object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an object in
motion tends to stay in motion in a straight line at a
constant speed
21
Energy and Power

Force, Work, Power
Newton's Second Law: Mass and Acceleration
F = ma
Where F is force, m is mass, and a is acceleration (F and a
are vectors).
If m is in kg, and a is in m/s2, then F is in newtons
22
Energy and Power

Force, Work, Power
Example:
What force is required to accelerate a 1200 kg EV from 0 to 100 kph in 30 seconds?
Final speed (Vf)
100 kph = 28 m/s
Time (t)
30 s
Mass (m)
1200 kg
Acceleration
a = v/t = 0.93 m/s2
Force
F = ma = 1,111 newtons
23
Energy and Power

Force, Work, Power
Work
Work is the product of the net force and the displacement through
which that force is exerted
W = Fd
F is in newtons, and d is in meters
The unit of work is the newton.meter or joule
Work is an alternative word for energy
24
Energy and Power

Force, Work, Power
Example (force over a distance):
F = 50 N
D = 60 m
W = 3,000 j
25
Energy and Power

Force, Work, Power
Example (acceleration over time)
m
t
Vf
a
F
d
1,200
30
100
0.93
1,111
417
kg
s
kph = 28 m/s
m/s2
N
m
463 kj
26
Energy and Power

Force, Work, Power
Power
Power is the work done divided by the time used to do the work
P = Fd/t
The unit of power is the joule/second or watt
(1 kW = 1.34 HP, 1 HP = 746 W)
27
Energy and Power

Force, Work, Power
Example: P = 0.5ma2t
m 1200 kg
Vf 100 kph
t
30 s
a 0.93 m/s2
P 15.4 kW
28
Energy and Power

The total energy (or work) is the sum of the energy required to:
Accelerate and climb hills
Overcome rolling and wind resistance
29
Energy and Power

Example: Our 1,200 kg EV accelerating to 100 kph up a 5% grade hill.
Acceleration Force
Fa = ma
W 1200 kg
Vf 100 kph
t
30 s
a
0.93 m/s2
Fa 1111 N
30
Energy and Power

Grade Force
Fg = W g G (for typical grades)
W = vehicle weight in kg
g = gravitational force
G = Percent grade
g
9.8 m/s2
Grade 5 %
Fg 588 N
31
Energy and Power

Rolling Resistance Force

Fr = Cr W g cos f
Cr = 0.007(1+ (v/30.5))
W = vehicle weight in kg
g = gravitational force
f = angle of incline
Cr 0.0134
f 2.86 degrees (0.05 radians)
Fr 120 N
32
Energy and Power

Aerodynamic Drag Force

Fd = (Cd p A V^2)/2
Fd = drag force in Newtons
Cd = coefficient of drag
p = air density (1.29 kg/m2 @sea level)
A = frontal area in sq m
Va = average speed in m/s
Cd 0.3
P 1.29 kg/m2
A 1.39 sq m
Fd 52 N
33
Energy and Power

Propulsion Force
Propulsion Force = acceleration + grade + rolling resistance
+ aerodynamic drag
Fa 1111 N Acceleration
59%
Fg 588 N Grade
31%
Fr 120 N Rolling Resistance 6%
Fd
52 N Aerodynamic Drag 3%
Total Propulsion Force 1871 N
34
Energy and Power

Total Energy
Total Propulsion Force = 1871 N
From before, distance = 417 m
W = Fd = 779 kj
Peak Power
P = W/t = 779/30 = 26 kW (35 HP)
Note: This would be the power delivered to the wheels!
35
Energy and Power

Relationship to Electrical Energy and Power
Assume efficiency is 80%
Total Energy
W = 779 kj = 217 wh
If V = 144 volts
Then Ah = 217/(144 x 0.8) = 1.9 Ah
Peak Power
P = 26 kW
A = 26 x 1000/(144 x 0.8) = 226 Amps
36
Energy and Power

Torque
Torque is rotational energy (work) in newton.meters
Wheel torque is the applied force in newtons multiplied by the

wheel radius
Motor torque is the wheel torque divided by the transmission ratio
Power is proportional to torque multiplied by RPM
37

Brief Introduction
(will be covered in more detail later in course)
Lead acid batteries are the most practical for amateur conversions
Nickel cadmium are available, but are expensive and have other problems
Nickel metal hydride are generally low power and expensive, but could
provide good performance
Lithium ion provide best performance, but at a high price and are not
easily available
38

Lead Acid Batteries
Most common type is flooded:
Liquid electrolyte - must be kept horizontal

Can tolerate deeper discharge
Can be over-charged to equalize cells
Require periodic topping up with distilled water
Gell Cells:
Gelled starved electrolyte

Sealed - can be mounted on sides if required
Lower capacity, lower tolerance to deep discharge
Mustnt be overcharged
39

Lead Acid Batteries
Spiral Wound:
A form of absorbent glass mat (AGM) battery where the plates
are wound in a spiral
Very rugged and can tolerate high rates of discharge
Not available in very high capacities so sometimes connected
as buddy pairs
Expensive
40

Battery Capacity
Relationship to Total Energy and Peak Power
An earlier example was from an Excel spreadsheet that calculates

total energy and peak power required for a typical EV trip
scenario
From spreadsheet:
For a typical 20 km highway trip in the Electrix:
Total Energy = 3 kwh = 21 Ah

Peak power = 30 kW = 206 A
41

Battery Limitations
Quoted Versus Actual Capacity
The nominal capacity of a battery is quoted at the C/20
rate, i.e. the ampere hours delivered if discharged
100% over 20 hours
The actual capacity drops exponentially as the
discharge rate is increased
Peukerts Law can be used to estimate actual capacity
at a given discharge rate
42

Battery Limitations
Peukerts Law
t = H(C/IH)k
H is the hour rating that the battery is specified against
C is the rated capacity at that discharge rate, in Ah
I is the discharge current, in A
k is the Peukert constant, (varies between 1.1 and 1.3)
t is the discharge time, in hours
43

Battery Limitations
Peukert Calculation
Rated battery capacity
C rate for quoted capacity
Discharge rate
Peukert exponent
Acceptable depth of discharge (DoD)
Amp-hours available at discharge rate
Life at discharge rate to specified DoD
Percentage of rated capacity
130
20
75
1.2
60
48
0.64
37
amp-hours
Hours
amps
percent
amp-hours
hours
%
2004 John De Armond All Rights reserved.
44

Battery Limitations
Operating Temperature Range
Batteries are specified at 78O F (26O C)
The safe operating range is about 15O to 35O C
The optimum operating range is about 20O to 30O C
Too low a temperature reduces capacity, increases DoD
Too high a temperature decreases life, increases failure rate

Batteries are like babies - dont drop them, dont let them get too
hot or cold, feed and water them, and keep them clean
45

Battery Limitations
The Weakest Link
A 144 volt battery pack consists of twelve 12 volt batteries in series
This is really seventy-two 2 volt cell in series
Which ever cell discharges first determines the capacity of the pack if
you have one weak cell your pack capacity will be reduced
Once a cell is fully discharged the other cells are forcing current through
it - which can cause futher damage
Cell matching must be maintained to prevent premature discharge
46

Battery Limitations
Cell Matching
Insist all batteries in a pack are from the same production batch and have
not been sitting around in stock for too long
Batteries should be kept at the same temperature

Difficult to do, especially with multiple battery boxes
Cells within a battery should remain fairly matched if an equalizing

charge is performed regularly
Series (bulk) charging can cause batteries to get out of balance
Charger per battery ensures all batteries are fully charged
47
EV Fundamentals
End of Presentation
Thank You
48
The Electrix Experience

The Donor Car
49

Restoration
Aleks Auto Body Works
50

Conversion
51

Conversion
52

Conversion
53

Conversion
54

Conversion
55

Battery Monitor
56

Finished!
57

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The Electrix

1988 Homda CRX

Electric Vehicle Council of Ottawa

Series Wound DC Motor

Shunt Wound DC Motor

Stator and rotor in parallel

Compond Wound DC Motor

Permanent Magnet and Brushless DC Motors

Stator and rotor have very low resistance

Motor generates back EMF (voltage) as it speeds up

Potential motor runaway at low load

For Series Wound DC Motor

Practical pack voltage - 96 volts to 144 volts

Multiple 6, 8, or 12 volt batteries

Higher voltage = more cells (2 volts per cell)

Input - 115 or 230 volts AC

Single pack charger or individual charger per battery

Interlock to prevent starting EV with charger plugged in

Battery pack must be vented while charging

explosive hydrogen released

Battery voltage and current meters

Battery monitoring system

Battery venting and cooling

Charger for auxiliary 12 volt battery

Vacuum pump for brakes

Voltage - water pressure

Current - water flow

Resistance - pipe diameter (smaller diameter equals greater

Voltage - Volts (V)

Current - Amps (I)

Resistance - Ohms (R)

Current increases as voltage increases and resistance decreases

Voltage sometimes referred to as electro-motive force (EMF)

Batteries may be serial or serial/parallel connected

Serial connection increases voltage

Parallel connection provides more current

Buddy pairs of batteries are sometimes used with lower capacity

Energy - joules (J)

Energy is power integrated over time (watt/hours)

Energy is used to overcome wind and rolling resistance, to

Assuming a relatively constant battery voltage, the total energy

Energy and Power

Energy and Power

Newton's First Law: Mass and Inertia

Energy and Power

Energy and Power

Final speed (Vf)

100 kph = 28 m/s

a = v/t = 0.93 m/s2

Energy and Power

Energy and Power

Energy and Power

Energy and Power

Energy and Power

Energy and Power

Energy and Power

Example: Our 1,200 kg EV accelerating to 100 kph up a 5% grade hill.

Energy and Power

Energy and Power

Rolling Resistance Force

Energy and Power

Aerodynamic Drag Force

Energy and Power

Total Propulsion Force 1871 N