Basic Chemistry 1

CH1200 UNIT 1
CH1200 UNIT 1.0 CHEMICAL

TERMINOLOGY
1.1.1 DEFINE
CHEMISTRY
The study of the
composition,
properties and
transformations of
matter.
CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

1.1.2 AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION
• Analytical Chemistry
• Organic Chemistry
• Environmental Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Engineering Chemistry

1.1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• Significant Figures apply to the

reporting of measurements taken in
chemistry.
• Significant figures include the certain
digits of a measurement and the first
uncertain digit.

1.1.3 RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. ALL NONZERO DIGITS ARE SIGNIFICANT.
2. LEADING ZEROS THAT BEGIN A

MEASURE ARE NEVER SIGNIFICANT.
3. CAPTIVE ZEROS BETWEEN NON-ZERO

DIGITS ARE ALWAYS SIGNIFICANT
4. TRAILING ZEROS ARE ONLY

SIGNIFICANT IF THE MEASURE IS
WRITTEN WITH A DECIMAL POINT
5. EXACT NUMBERS ARE ALWAYS

SIGNIFICANT
1.1.3 ROUNDING OFF MEASUREMENTS
Sometimes it is necessary to Round Off

numbers in calculations to maintain the
correct number of Significant Figures.
If the digit to be removed

a) is less than 5, the preceding digit stays
the same. Ex: 1.33 rounds to 1.3
b) is equal to or greater than 5, the
preceding digit is increased by 1. Ex:
1.36 rounds to 1.4 Ex: 3.15 rounds to
3.2
When using your calculator , round off the
final answer only.

1.1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
For multiplication and division, the number
of significant figures in the result is the same
as that in the measurement with the
smallest number of significant figures.
Ex: 4.56 x 1.4 = 6.384 or 6.4

Since 1.4 has only 2 significant figures so must
the final answer.
Ex: 8.315 = 0.0279027 or 0.0279

298
Since 298 has only 3 significant figures so
must the final answer.
1.1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN ADDITION
AND SUBTRACTION
For addition and subtraction , the number
of significant figures in the result is set
by the measurement with the least
number of decimal places.
Ex: 12.11
18.0
1.013
31. 123 rounds off to 31.1
Since the second measure (18.0) has
only 1 decimal place, this limits the
number of digits in the final answer.

1.1.4 METRIC UNITS
The Metric System of Measurement uses

SI Units.
Physical Basic Unit Abbreviation
Quantity
Mass Kilogram Kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K

Figure 2.3: A 100-ml Graduated
Cylinder

1.1.4 Measuring Mass
Most commonly used Metric Units for

Mass
Unit Symbol Gram Equivalent
Kilogram Kg 1000 g = 103 g = 1Kg
Gram g 1g
Milligram mg 0.001 g = 10-3 g = 1mg

1.1.4 Measuring Length
Most Commonly used Metric Units for

Length
Unit Symbol Meter Equivalent
Kilometer Km 1000 m or 103 m
Meter M 1m
Centimeter cm 0.01 m or 10-2 m
Millimeter mm 0.001 m or 10-3 m

1.1.4 Measuring Volume
Most commonly used Metric Units for

Volume
Unit Symbol Liter Equivalent
Liter L 1000mL = 103mL
Milliliter mL 1/1000 L = 10-3 L = 1 mL

Figure 2.5: Measuring a Pin

Figure 2.1: Comparison of English and metric units for length on a ruler

Figure 2.6: Thermometers based on the three temperature scales in (a) ice water and
(b) boiling water

Figure 2.7: The three major temperature scales

Figure 2.8: Converting 70°C to units measured on the Kelvin scale

Figure 2.9: Comparison of the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

Figure 2.10: (a) Tank of water. (b) Person submerged in the tank, raising the level of
the water.

Table 2.2: The Commonly used Prefixes in the Metric System

Table 2.2: The Commonly used Prefixes in the Metric System

Table 2.3: The Metric System for Measuring Length

Figure 2.2: Cubes

2.4.4 CHEMICAL CHANGES
Chemical Changes
involve the formation
of a completely new
substance.
Ex: Hydrogen and
Oxygen form Water
Iron nails rust
when exposed to air
Wood burns in air
Milk turns sour if
left out of the fridge
Bread rises with
yeast action
CH 1200 UNIT 2College of the North Atlantic Qatar

2.5.1 PROPERTIES OF METALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
1. All metals are solid (except for

Mercury)
2. Metals conduct Heat
3. Metals conduct electricity
4. Metals have a shiny appearance
5. Metals are malleable – can be
hammered into thin sheets
6. Metals are ductile – can be drawn
into thin wires

2.5.2 PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS
1. Non-metals can be solids, liquids or

gases.
2. Non-metals do not conduct heat.
3. Non-metals do not conduct
electricity
4. Non-metals do not have a shiny
appearance.
5. Non-metals are not malleable.
6. Non-metals are not ductile.

2.5.3 PROPERTIES OF METTALOIDS
Metalloid: An element which has both

metallic and non-metallic properties.
The list of metalloids includes:

Silicon
Germanium
Arsenic
Antimony
Tellurium
These elements have some metallic
properties and some metallic properties.

2.5.3 PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS
METALLIC PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS:

- All metalloids are solids at room
temperature
- Most metalloids are shiny in
appearance
NON-METALLIC PROPERTIES OF
METALLOIDS:
- Metalloids are brittle and not
malleable
- Metalloids are not good conductors of
Heat or Electricity

2.5.4 CHEMICAL SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS
Symbols are used to represent Chemical

Elements. Symbols may be 1 or 2 letters.
The symbol may come from the English
name or from the Latin or Greek name.
SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS 1 - 10

Hydrogen - H Carbon -C
Helium - He Nitrogen - N
Lithium - Li Oxygen -O
Beryllium - Be Fluorine - F
Boron - B Neon- Ne

2.5.4 SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS
SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS 11 – 20
Sodium - Na
Magnesium - Mg
Aluminum - Al
Silicon - Si
Phosphorus -P
Sulfur - S
Chlorine - Cl
Argon - Ar
Potassium - K
Calcium - Ca
2.5.4 SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS
The symbols for some elements come

from ancient Latin or Greek names.
Knowing the ancient name helps us
remember the symbol.
Element OLD NAME SYMBOL
SODIUM Natrium Na
POTASSIUM Kalium K
GOLD Aurum Au
SILVER Argentum Ag
IRON Ferrum Fe
LEAD Plumbum Pb
COPPER Cuprum Cu
MERCURY Hydragyrum Hg

2.5.5 DEFINE MOLECLAR FORMULA
• Molecular Formula: The exact formula

of a molecule, giving the types of atoms
present
and the numbers of each type.
The type of atom is indicated by the

symbol.
The number of each atom is indicated by

the subscripts.

2.5.5 SAMPLE MOLECULAR FORMULAS
Water H2O contains 2 atoms of

Hydrogen (H) and 1 atom of Oxygen
(O).
Carbon Dioxide CO2 contains 1 atom of

Carbon
(C) and 2 atoms of Oxygen (O)
Sucrose or sugar C12 H22 O11 contains 12

atoms of Carbon (C) , 22 atoms of
Hydrogen (H) and 11 atoms of Oxygen
(O).

2.5.6 NAMING ELEMENTS IN A MOLECULE
Elements in a molecule can be named by

having a knowledge of the Symbols on
the Periodic Table.
NaCl - Sodium Chloride
MgBr2 - Magnesium Bromide
Al2O3 - Aluminum Oxide
NO2 - Nitrogen Dioxide

2.5.7 LIST ATOMS IN A MOLECULE
Consider Ammonium Carbonate

Molecular Formula (NH4)2CO3
Element # Atoms Present

Nitrogen 2
[There is only one N visible but the “2” on
the round brackets doubles all atoms
inside]
Hydrogen 8
[There are only 4 Hydrogen visible but the
“2” on the round bracket makes it 8]
Carbon 1
Oxygen 3
[The subscript “3” on the Oxygen triples
the total number of O present]
3.1.1 LAW OF DEFINITE
PROPORTIONS
• Law of Definite Proportions: States
that different samples of a pure
substance always contains the same
proportion of elements by mass.
Example: Every molecule of water H2O
contains 1 part Hydrogen and 8 parts
Oxygen by mass.
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3.1.2 LAW OF CONSERVATIONOF
MASS
• Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is
neither created or destroyed in normal
chemical reactions.
The total mass of all reactants = the
total mass of all products.
* Note → Nuclear reactions are an

exception to this rule covered by E = M
C2
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3.1.3 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
• Law of Conservation of Energy:

Energy can not be created or
destroyed … only changed from
one form to another.
Example: Exothermic reactions are
chemical reactions which release
heat. This heat is not being
“created” by the reaction, just
released from its original form.
This energy existed in the form of
chemical energy in the bonds of
the reactants..
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3.1.4 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS AND
ENERGY
• Law of Conservation of Mass and

Energy: The total amount of Matter
and Energy in the Universe is Constant.
If the amount of Energy Increases, the
amount of Matter must Decrease.
Example: In Nuclear Reactions, a small
amount of Matter disappears and is
replaced by an equivalent amount of
Energy.
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4.1.1 ATOMIC WEIGHT SCALE
Atomic Weight Scale: An atomic weight
scale is used to measure small particles
such as atoms and molecules.
Atomic Mass Unit (AMU) : This is the
basic unit of the atomic weight scale.
1 AMU = 1.66 x 10 -24
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4.1.2 ATOMIC MASS OF
ELEMENTS
Elements exist as different isotopes
therefore all atoms of an element are
not exactly equal in mass.
Example: C – 12 and C – 14
C – 12 has 6 p+ , 6 no and 6 e - giving
it an atomic mass of 12 AMU
C – 14 has 6 p+ , 8 no and 6 e - giving it
an atomic mass of 14 AMU
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4.1.2 ATOMIC MASS OF ELEMENTS
Average Atomic Mass: The atomic mass
reported on the Periodic Table reflects
the average atomic mass of all isotopes
of the element. This average is a
weighted average which reflects the
relative abundance of all isotopes of
atoms of that element.
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4.1.3 MOLECULAR MASS
Molecular Mass: The mass of a molecule
which is the sum of the atomic masses
of all atoms present in the molecule.
Example: CO2 has a molecular mass of
44.01 g.
C 12.01 x 1 = 12.01 g
O 16.00 x 2 = 32.00 g
44.01 g
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4.1.4 CALCULATING MOLECULAR MASS OF
MOLECULES
Molecular Masses of Elements.

The molecular mass of most elements
on the Periodic Table is listed as the
Atomic Mass.
Examples: H 1.008 g
B 10.81 g
C 12.00 g
Ca 40.08 g
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4.1.4 MOLECULAR MASSES OF
ELEMENTS
Special Molecular Masses to Remember:
Phosphorus: This element exists as FOUR
Phosphorus atoms P4
The Atomic Mass of Phosphorus is
30.97 g.
The Molecular Mass of Phosphorus P4
P4 30.97 g x 4 = 123.88 g
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ELEMENTS
Sulfur: This element exists as an Eight
Membered Ring of sulfur atoms S8
The Atomic Mass of Sulfur is 32.07 g.
The Molecular Mass of Sulfur S8
S8 32.07 g x 8 = 256.56 g
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ELEMENTS
Diatomic Gases: These elements exists
as Diatomic Molecules and their
Molecular Mass is double the Atomic
Mass on the Periodic Table.
The Diatomic Gases are H2 N2 O 2
F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
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ELEMENTS
Diatomic Gases:
Nitrogen N has a mass of 14.01 g
Nitrogen Gas is Diatomic so its
Molecular Mass is …
N2 14.01 g x 2 = 28.02 g
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4.1.5 GRAM ATOMIC WEIGHT
• Gram Atomic Weight: A term which
relates the Atomic Weight of an atom in
grams. Gram Atomic Weights are
based on a system of Relative weights.
• The standard used is the Carbon atom
which has a mass of exactly 12.00 g.
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4.1.5 GRAM ATOMIC WEIGHT
• Relative Atomic Weights:
The mass of one Carbon atom is
taken as exactly 12.00 g. In this
way one Hydrogen atom has 1/12
this mass which is 1.0 g.
Carbon has 12 subatomic particles
with mass
(6 p+ and 6 no) .
Hydrogen has 1/12 as many
subatomic particles compared to
Carbon. (1 p+)
Magnesium has 24 subatomic
particles
and therefore a relative atomic mass
of 24.00 g.
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4.1.6 GRAM MOLECULAR
WEIGHT
• Gram Molecular Weight: A term which
relates the Molecular Weight of a
molecule in grams. Gram Molecular
Weights are also based on the Relative
Weight System.
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4.1.7 PERCENTAGE OF ELEMENTS IN A
COMPOUND
• Compounds consist of combinations of

atoms. The number of atoms of each
element present is given by the
formula.
• The total mass of the compound is the
sum of the masses of the atoms
present.
• The percentage of each element
present can be calculated.
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4.1.7 PERCENTAGE OF ELEMENTS IN A
COMPOUND
• Percentage Calculation:
CO2 consists of Carbon and Oxygen in
a ratio of 1:2. The molecular mass is
44.01 g.
% C = 12.01 g x 100% = 27.29 %
44.01 g
% O = 32.00 g x 100 % = 72.71
%
44.01 g
Total: 100%
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4.2.1 DEFINITIONOF THE MOLE
• MOLE: A measuring unit used in
Chemistry to count atoms, molecules or
ions. Since these items are
individually very small in mass, a very
large number of them must be taken
together to be measured conveniently.
1 MOLE = 6.02 x 10
23
items
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4.2.2 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
• Amadeo Avogadro: The Italian Scientist
who first recognized the importance of
the relationship between mass and
number.
• The mass of an element or compound
can be used to find the number of
atoms or molecules present.
• Avogadro’s Number is the number of
items in One Mole: 6.02 x 10 23
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4.2.3 MOLAR MASS
DEFINITION
Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of an
element or compound.
Examples:
1 mole of N2 = 28.02 g
1 mole of Cl2 = 70.90 g
1 mole of HCl = 36.46 g
1 mole of LiOH = 23.95 g
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4.2.4 INTERCONVERTING
UNITS
• MOLES
• GRAMS
• ATOMS
• MOLECULES
• ATOMIC MASS UNITS
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4.3.1 DEFINE EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Empirical Formula: A chemical formula

which gives the simplest whole number
ratio of atoms present in a compound.
Examples: NaCl Ratio 1 : 1
BeF2 Ratio 1 : 2
B I3 Ratio 1 : 3
Al2O3 Ratio 2 : 3
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4.3.2 EMPIRICAL FORMULA
CALCULATIONS
Empirical Formula Calculations:
Chemical Calculations in which you
must determine the Empirical Formula
or Ratio of elements present in a
compound.
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4.3.3 DEFINE MOLECULAR FORMULA
Molecular Formula: A chemical formula
which gives the exact number of atoms
of each element present in a molecule.
Examples: Compounds of N & O have
different Molecular Formulas.
Nitric Oxide NO (1:1)
Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 (1:2)
Dinitrogen Tetraoxide N2O4
(1:2)
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4.3.4 MOLECULAR FORMULA
CALCULATIONS
Molecular Formula Calculations:
Chemical calculations in which you
must determine the Molecular Formula
of a compound given the Empirical
Formula and additional information of
masses.
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4.4.1 EXPLAIN EQUATION
SYMBOLS
Chemical Equations:
Reactants appear to the LEFT of the →
Products appear to the RIGHT of the →
The → symbolizes the reaction process.
Physical States are indicated in
brackets:
Solid (s) Liquid (l) Gas (g) Aqueous (aq)
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4.4.2 CONSERVATION OF MASS IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Conservation of Mass:
Total Mass Reactants = Total Mass
Products
Example: A + B → C + D
12 g 30 g 15 g
27 g
42 g =
42 g
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4.4.3 BALANCING EQUATIONS
Balancing Equations: A process of writing
chemical equations so that the total
number of atoms of each type is the
same on each side of the equation.
For each element, the total # of atoms
on the Left must equal the total # of
atoms on the Right.
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4.5.1 ACTIVITY SERIES
Activity Series: A list of elements which
shows their comparative reactivity.
Examples: Halogen Activity Series
F → Cl → Br → I
Metal Activity Series
Li→K→Ca→Na→Mg→Al→Zn→Cr→Fe→Ni→Sn
→Pb→H→Cu→Hg→Ag→Pt→Au
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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Composition Reactions
A + B → AB
Example
Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen
Chloride
H2 (g) + Cl 2 (g) → 2 HCl (g)
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EQUATIONS
Decomposition Reactions:
AB → A + B
Example:
Lithium Bromide → Lithium +
Bromine
2 LiBr (s) → 2 Li (s) + Br2 (g)
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EQUATIONS
Single Replacement Reactions:
Metal Activity Series
A + BC → AC + B
Example:
Lithium + Potassium Chloride →
Lithium
Chloride + Potassium
Li (s) + KCl (s) → LiCl (s) + K (s)
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EQUATIONS
Single Replacement Reactions:
Halogen Activity Series
A + BC → BA + C
Example:
Fluorine + Magnesium Chloride
→
Magnesium Fluoride
+ Chlorine
F2 (g) + MgCl2 (s) → MgF2 (s) +
Cl2 (g)
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REACTIONS
Double Replacement Reaction
AB + CD → AD + CB
Example:
Sodium Chloride + Magnesium Oxide →
Sodium Oxide + Magnesium Chloride
2NaCl (s) + MgO (s) → Na2O (s) + MgCl2
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REACTIONS
Hydrocarbon Combustion Reactions:
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen →
Carbon Dioxide + Water
Example:
Methane + Oxygen →
Carbon Dioxide + Water
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
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4.5.3 WRITING VARIOUS TYPES OF CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
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4.6.1 DEFINE STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry: The study of the relative
quantities of reactants and products in
a chemical reaction.
Given a specific mass of a reactant we
can calculate the exact amount of a
specific product we can expect to
produce.
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4.6.2 THEORETICAL YIELD
Theoretical Yield: The amount of product
that is produced by a chemical reaction
as predicted by the reaction’s
stoichiometry.
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4.6.3 ACTUAL YIELD
Actual Yield: The measured quantity of
product obtained in a chemical
reaction.
Many times, the Actual Yield of a
reaction is less than the Theoretical
Yield due to factors which do not allow
the reaction to run to completion.
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4.6.4 DETERMINING MASSES FROM CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Mole Ratio: The ratio of each reactant to

each product in a balanced chemical
equation.
The Mole Ratio will allow us to determine
the exact number of Moles of any
Reactant used or Product formed in a
reaction.
The Number of Moles can be converted to
Grams to determine the final answer in
Grams.
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4.6.5 DETERMINE VOLUMES FROM CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Mole Ratio: The Ratio of each reactant

to each product in a balanced chemical
equation.
The Mole Ratio will allow us to calculate
the exact number of moles of gas
reacted or produced. Using the Molar
Volume of a Gas, the volume of gas can
be calculated.
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4.6.6 PERCENTAGE YIELD CALCULATION
Percentage Yield: A comparison of Actual

Yield compared to Theoretical Yield
expressed as a percent.
Formula:
% Yield = Actual Yield X 100%
Theoretical Yield
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4.6.7 LIMITING REAGENT
PROBLEMS
Limiting Reagent: The reactant that is
completely consumed during a chemical
reaction, limiting the amount of
product which can be produced.
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4.6.8 MOLARITY OF
SOLUTIONS
Molarity: A unit of concentration
expressed as the number of moles of
solute present in one litre of solution.
Formula: Molarity = #
Moles
Litre
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4.6.9 MOLALITY OF SOLUTIONS
Molality: A unit of concentration
expressed as the number of moles of
solute present in one Kilogram of
solvent
Formula: Molality = # Moles
Kg
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4.6.10 DILUTION
CALCULATIONS
Dilution: The process of adding more
solvent to a concentrated solution to
reduce its concentration.
Formula: Mi X Vi = M f x V f
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4.6.11 CALCULATE PERCENT BY
MASS
Mass / Mass Percent: A unit of
concentration showing the Mass of
Solute compared to the Total Mass of
Solution , expressed as a percentage.
Formula: M/M % = Mass of Solute x 100
%
Mass of Solution
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4.6.12 CALCULATE MOLE
FRACTIONS
Mole Fraction: A unit of concentration
showing the number of moles of a
component divided by the total number
of moles in the mixture.
NOTE: Mole Fraction as a concentration
unit applies only to
mixtures of gases.
Formula:
Mole Fraction (X) = Moles of Gas A
Total Moles of All Gases
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4.6.13 CALCULATIONS ON REACTIONS IN
SOLUTION
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5.1 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
• All atoms (except Hydrogen) are

composed of three subatomic particles:
• - ELECTRONS
• - PROTONS
• - NEUTRONS
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5.1.1 ELECTRON
PROPERTIES
• Electrons are found in the regions of
space surrounding a nucleus and have
the following properties:
• Have a negative electric charge of - 1

• Have a negligible mass when compared
to the mass of a proton or neutron.
• For more information see Note Board

5.1.2 PROTON PROPERTIES
• Protons are found in the nucleus of
atoms and have the following properties:
• Have a +1 Positive Charge

• Have a relative mass of 1.0 Atomic Mass
unit (AMU)

5.1.3 NEUTRON PROPERTIES
• Neutrons are found in the nucleus of
atoms and have the following properties:
• Have a Zero Electrical charge

• Have a relative mass of 1.0 Atomic Mass
unit (AMU)

5.1.3 ATOMIC NEUTRALITY
• All atoms in their normal state are

electrically neutral - that is, they do not
have an overall electrical charge.
• This arises from the fact that atoms

have the same number of Protons (+’s)
as Electrons (-’s).

5.1 - The Atom
• Electrons are negatively charged, have almost

no mass and are found outside the nucleus of
an atom
• Protons are positively charged, have a

relative mass of 1, and are found inside the
nucleus of an atom
• Neutrons are electrically neutral (no charge),

have a relative mass of 1 and are found inside
the nucleus of an atom

5.2.1– DALTON MODEL
Atomic Theories
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory and “Billiard
Ball” Model

5.2.1 – Dalton’s Billiard Ball
Model
• John Dalton viewed the atom as a solid
sphere or a billiard ball

5.2.1 – Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• All elements are composed of atoms.
• Atoms are indivisible, invisible
particles.
• Atoms of the same element are the
same.
• Atoms of different elements are
different.
• Compounds are formed by 2 or more
atoms joined together.

• Dalton’s theory correctly predicted the Law of
Multiple Proportions.
• LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS: A given

compound always has the same numbers & types
of atoms (and thus always contains the same
proportions by mass).
• H2O contain 2 H atoms and 1 Oxygen atom and

the H:O mass ratio is 1:8 (2 Hydrogens = 2.016
gm and 1 Oxygen = 16.00 gm)

• All atoms of a particular element are all the same.
• The atoms of different Elements are made of tiny
particles called atoms.
• All atoms of a given element elements have
different masses (eg. – hydrogen has a different
mass than carbon).
• Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of
other elements to form compounds (in small,
whole number ratios such as 1:1, 1:2, 2:3 etc).
• Atoms cannot be divided, created or destroyed in
chemical reactions.

5.2.3 – Thompson Model
Atomic Theories
• Thomson’s “Raisin-Bun” Model

5.2.3 –Thomson’s Raisin Bun
Model
• His model shows small negative particles of
the atom (electrons) inside a larger positive
mass. It is known as the raisin bun model or
plum pudding model or chocolate chip
cookie model
• Thomson’s model attempted to explain
positive and negative charges in the atom

5.2.4 – RUTHERFORD MODEL
Atomic Theories
• Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

5.2.4 – Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
Rutherford “shot” +ve charged particles
called alpha (α ) particles (helium nuclei)
at thin gold foil (element gold or Au).
• If Thomson’s model was correct, most of
the α particles should have been passed
straight through the foil.
Q: Why? (Think of Thomson’s model)
• However, some of the α particles were

reflected or scattered.
Q: What does this imply about the atom?
For more information see Note Board

5.2.4 – Rutherford’s Gold Foil
Experiment
For more information see Note Board

5.2.4 Rutherford’s Gold Foil
Experiment

Experiment
• What Rutherford Saw

Experiment
• Most α particles flew right through the gold
foil as if there was nothing there.
• Q: Why?
Atoms are mostly empty space.
• A small # of α particles were bounced back
to their source.
Q: Why?
There must be a small, dense nucleus in the
atom with a positive charge.

5.2.4 RUTHERFORD’S
MODEL
• The Nucleus of an atom is the dense
central core of an atom which contains
all the atom’s Protons and Neutrons.
• The overall charge on a nucleus is

positive due to the presence of Protons.
• The nucleus is surrounded by electrons

5.2.4 – Rutherford’s
Model
Atomic Theories
• Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

5.2.4 – Rutherford’s Nuclear
Model
• Rutherford proposed that most of the atom
is empty space occupied by moving electrons
• The positive charge and mass were believed
to be a small dense centre or nucleus
• Rutherford’s model is called the Nuclear
Model because electrons revolved around a
positive nucleus
For more information

see Note Board

5.2.4 - The Atom
• Electrons account for little of the mass of
an atom, but effectively occupy most of
the space or volume
• Protons and neutrons occupy little of the
space or volume of an atom but account
for most of its mass.

5.2.5 ATOMIC NUMBER
• The Atomic Number of an atom is the

number of protons in an atom of that
element.
• Each atom has a unique Atomic Number
• Ex: Hydrogen has Atomic Number = 1
• Ex: Carbon has Atomic Number = 6

5.2.5 ATOMIC NUMBERS ON THE PERIODIC
TABLE
• The Atomic Number of an element can

be found on the Periodic Table of
Elements.
• All the elements are arranged in order
of increasing Atomic Number.
• The Atomic Number is usually found in
the top left hand corner of the space
for each element.

5.2.6 MASS NUMBER
• Atomic Mass Number is the total of the

number of Protons and Neutrons
contained within a given nucleus.
• Ex: Hydrogen’s Atomic Mass Number =
1 since it has only 1 Proton in its
nucleus.
• Ex: Carbon’s Atomic Mass Number = 12
since it has 6 Protons and 6 Neutrons in
its nucleus.

5.2.6 CALCULATIONS WITH ATOMIC NUMBERS AND MASS
NUMBERS
• Formula to determine the Number of

Neutrons in an atom:
• # Neutrons = Atomic Mass # - Atomic #

5.2.7 Bohr’s Model
Atomic Theories
• Bohr’s Orbit Model

5.2.7 Bohr’s Orbit Model
• Bohr proposed that electrons orbited
the nucleus of the atom (same as the
planets which orbit the sun)
• In this model, electrons are assumed to
orbit the nucleus at fixed radii (orbits).

5.2.7 - Bohr’s Orbit
Model
• Bohr’s model showed that electrons
orbited the nucleus of the atom

see Note Board

5.2.7 - Bohr’s Orbit
• Electrons can jump from a
Model
low-energy orbit near
the nucleus to orbits of higher energy by
absorbing energy (purple trails).
• When the electrons return to a lower energy
level (blue trails), they release the excess energy
in the form of radiation of a characteristic
wavelength, such as visible light.
• Bohr’s Model is called

the Orbit Model

see Note Board

5.2.8 AVERAGE ATOMIC
MASS
• Average Atomic Mass represents the
mass of an atom which takes into
account the existence of isotopes.
• Isotopes are forms of an atom which
differ in Atomic Mass and the Number
of Neutrons in the nucleus.
• The Atomic Mass reported on the
Periodic Table is an average of the
mass of all isotopes of the element.

5.2.9 CALCULATIONS OF AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS
• Calculation of Average Atomic Mass

requires the Atomic Mass and Relative
Abundance of each isotope.
• Relative Abundance is given as the
percentage of each isotope present in a
naturally occurring sample of the
element.

5.2.10 ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
• Electromagnetic Radiation is a form of
radiation which requires NO medium to
transport it.
• Examples: Radio Waves
Satellite Transmissions
X – Rays
Microwaves
Sunlight
CH 1200 UNIT 5 PART B

5.2.10 Electromagnetic
Spectrum
• The full
electromagnetic
spectrum contains
all wavelengths and
frequencies
• The visible part of
the spectrum is
shown below.

5.2.11 PROPERTIES OF WAVES
• Definition: A wave is a means by which
energy moves from place to place
• Examples: Water waves
Sound Waves
Radio Waves
Some waves require a medium to
transport them ( Water & Sound Waves)
Electromagnetic waves require no
medium

5.2.11 Waves in Nature

5.2.11 Typical Wave Form

5.2.11 WAVE RELATED
CALCULATIONS
• Universal Wave Equation : This
equation applies to all forms of waves
• V = f x λ
where v = velocity
f = frequency
λ = wavelength

5.2.12 PLANCK’S QUANTUM
THEORY
• Max Planck proposed a theory that
energy emitted from an object comes
in discrete amounts called quanta
• The amount of Energy released is
directly related to the frequency of the
energy emitted. E = h x f
where E = energy
h = Planck’s Constant
f = frequency

5.2.13 PHOTOELETRIC EFFECT
• PHOTOELETRIC EFFECT: Albert Einstein
proposed that Quanta of Light called
photons striking a metal surface cause
electrons to be dislodged from atoms .
These electrons can form a tiny current.
• Examples: Photocells in calculators
Photoelectric switches

5.2.14 BOHR’S HYDROGEN
ATOM
• Neils Bohr saw the Hydrogen atom as
having a series of concentric orbits
around the nucleus.
• - Each orbit was circular (Solar System)
• - Each orbit was a discrete distance
from the nucleus.
• - Electrons on each orbit acquired the
energy value associated with that orbit.

ATOM
• Electrons on a lower level could absorb
energy and move to a higher level.
• These excited electrons would quickly
fall back to their own orbit and give out
energy.
• The energy given out = the energy
absorbed.

ATOM
• Electrons in a Bohr
atom absorbing and
releasing energy.

5.2.15 WAVE PROPERTIES OF AN
ELECTRON
• Bohr’s Theory did not apply to atoms
more complex than Hydrogen.
• De Broglie and Schrodinger proposed
that electrons behaved like particles
and waves.
• The position of any given electron is
more a function of a mathematical
probability than a function of a given
location

5.2.16 QUANTUM MECHANICAL
MODEL
• The Quantum Model of the atom is
based on Mathematical Probability
Functions called Wave Equations.
• These Equations give us the probability
of finding an electron in a particular
location.

5.2.16 ELECTRON LOCATION AS A
PROBABILITY
• The location of an
electron at any
time is shown as
a probability only.
• Each dot shows a

possible location
for an electron.

5.2.16 ORBITAL SHAPES
• The first atomic
orbital is spherical
in shape and
therefore 3
dimensional.

5.2.16 Quantum Mechanical
Model
• One image of a
Quantum
Mechanical Atom
is shown below.

5.2.17 ELECTRON QUANTUM
NUMBERS
• Energy Levels are identified by
Principle Quantum Numbers or n
• First Energy Level … n = 1
• Second Energy level … n = 2
• Third Energy level … n = 3

5.2.17 QUANTUM NUMBERS
• The number of possible orbitals on each

Energy level is given by n 2
• For n = 1 n2 = 1
• For n = 2 n2 = 4
• For n = 3 n2 = 9
• For n = 4 n 2 = 16

5.2.17 QUANTUM NUMBES
• For n = 1 n 2 = 1
• For 1st Energy Level → one 1 s
Orbital
• For n = 2 n 2 = 4
• For the 2nd Energy Level → one 2 s Orbital
& three 2 p Orbitals
• For n = 3 n 2 = 9
• For the 3rd Energy Level → one 3 s Orbital,
• three 3 p Orbitals & five 3 d Orbitals.

• As we move up
Energy Levels the
electrons move
farther from the
nucleus.
• This image shows
how the 1s orbital
compares in size to
2s.

• The 3 s orbital is
larger than 2s or
1s.

• The 1s orbital is
found inside the
2 s orbital. Both
orbitals have the
Nucleus as their
common center.
• The atom shown
at the right is
Lithium with 3 p+
and 3 e -

5.2.18 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF AN ATOM
• Electronic Configuration of an atom

shows the exact number of electrons
present AND the location of each
electron.
• Hydrogen H 1s1
• Helium He 1s2
• Lithium Li 1 s 22 s 1
• Beryllium Be 1 s 22 s 2

5.2.18 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
• After filling 1s and
2s we move to fill
the p orbitals on
the second Energy
Level.
• The p orbitals are

mutually
perpendicular on
the x, y & z axis.

5.2.18 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
• Filling Sets of P Orbitals
A set of p Orbitals must be EACH Half-
Filled before any one of them is
Completely Filled.
Boron B 1s2 2s 2 2 px1
Carbon C 1s 2 2s 2 2px1 2py1
Nitrogen N 1s 2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Oxygen O 1s 2
2s 2
2px2 2p y
1
2pz1

5.2.19 DRAW ORBITAL
DIAGRAMS
• After filling the 2
p orbitals we
must start on the
3s , 3p and 3d
orbitals.
• The shapes of
the 3d orbitals
are shown here.

5.2.20 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND THE
PERIODIC TABLE
• The elements on the Periodic Table are

arranged according to increasing
Atomic Number.
• Each element has one more electron
than the element preceding it.
• The Atomic Orbitals must be filled in
sequence: 1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p etc.

PERIODIC TABLE
• The orbitals
being filled for
the first 20
elements are
shown here.

PERIODIC TABLE

6.0 THE PERIODIC TABLE
• What is the periodic table ?
• What information is obtained from the table ?
• How can elemental properties be predicted
based on the periodic table ?
CH 1200 UNIT 6 PERIODIC TABLECollege of the North Atlantic Qatar

Dimitri
Mendeleev(1869)
Dmitri Mendelev, a
Russian chemist, teacher
and writer is considered
to be the father of the
modern periodic table of
the elements
http://www.chem.msu.su/eng/misc/mendeleev/welcome.html
6.0 The Periodic Table

6.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE PERIODIC
TABLE
Periodic Law : When elements are arranged
according to Atomic Number, similar physical
and chemical properties recur in a periodic
fashion.
Period: A period consists of any horizontal row of

the periodic table. At present there are 7
periods on the Periodic Table.
Group (Family): A group consists of any vertical

column of the Periodic Table. The more
important Families have special names.

6.1.2 PERIODS ON THE PERIODIC TABLE
• There are 7 periods on the P.T.

• Each horizontal row represents a
period.
• The first element of any period is a
metallic element
• The last element of any period is a
Noble gas element.
• As we move across each period, the
characteristics change gradually from
metallic to non-metallic.

6.1.2 – Periods or Rows
Periods: Are horizontal rows across the
periodic table (rows 1-7).
They have similar properties and generally
show trends.
1 18
IA VIIIA
1 2nd Period
2
IIA
13
IIIA
14
IVA
15
VA
16
VIA
17
VIIA
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB
5
6th Period
6

6.1.3 FAMILIES ON THE PERIODIC TABLE
• There are 8 important families on the P.T.

• Each family can be identified by the Number
at the top of the family column: IA , IIA ect.
Ex: Group IIA is the Alkaline Earth Family
Group VIIA are the Halogens
Group VIII8 are the Noble Gases
• Each family can be identified by any of the

numbers from 1 – 18 which are shown at the
top of each family.
Ex: Group 15 is the Nitrogen Family
Group 16 is the Oxygen Family.

6.1.3 Families and Groups
The groups shown below share similar
properties

6.1.3 - Families or Groups
Families: Are vertical columns down the periodic table (columns or group, 1- 18) and generally show trends.
These elements have the same number of electrons in the outer most shells, the valence shell.
1 18
IA VIIIA
1
2
IIA
Alkali
AlkaliFamily:
Family: 13
IIIA
14
IVA
15
VA
16
VIA
17
VIIA
11e-e-ininthe
thevalence
valenceshell
shell
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB
4
Halogen
HalogenFamily:
Family:
5
77e-e- ininthe
thevalence
valence
6
shell
shell
7

6.2 - Trends in Periodic
Table
The elements of the periodic table are
arranged in a pattern.
These patterns show trends in properties
such as:
• Atomic Radius
• Ionic Radius
• Ionization Energy
• Electron Affinity
• Electronegativity

6.2.1 - Trend in Atomic
Radius
• Note the trend in atomic radius shown
below
• The atomic radius increases down the
group and also increases from right to
left across a period

6.2.1 - Trend in Atomic
Radius
•Atomic Radius increases down each group
•Atomic Radius increases from right to left
across period

6.2.1 Trends in Atomic Radius

6.2.1 Trends in Atomic Radius

6.2.2 IONIC RADIUS
• Ionic Radius is defined as the radius of

an ion.
• Cation Formation usually produces an

ion which is smaller than the original
atom.
• Anion formation usually produces an

ion which is larger than the original
atom.

6.2.3 Atomic Radius vs Ionic Radius

6.2.3 -Comparing Trends in P. T.
• Moving Left --> Right
• Atomic Radius Decreases
• Ionization Energy Increases
• Electronegativity Increases
• Moving Top --> Bottom

• Atomic Radius Increases
• Ionization Energy Decreases
• Electronegativity Decreases
6.2.4 -Trend in Ionization
Energy
Ionization Energy (IE): the quantity
of energy required to remove an
electron from an atom.
The energy required to remove the
valence electron (outer electron) from
an atom. IE is largest toward top left
corner of periodic table since these
atoms hold on to their valence e- the
tightest.

6.2.4 INOIZATION ENERGY VALUES

6.2.4 - Trend in Ionization
Energy
• Ionization energy increases from left to
right and from bottom to top of the
periodic table
The energy required to remove the valence

electron from an atomic specie. Largest toward
NE corner of PT since these atoms hold on to
their valence e- the tightest.
6.2.5 Electron Affinity
• Electron Affinity is defined as the

energy change that occurs when an
electron is added to an atom to form an
anion.
• An anion is a negative ion.
• Electron Affinity values are usually
negative since most atoms release
energy when they accept an electron.

6.2.5 Trends in Electron Affinities
• Metals on the left of the P.T. tend to

have low Electron Affinities since they
are usually want to lose an electron
rather than gain one.
• Non-Metals on the right of the P.T. tend

to have high Electron Affinities since
they usually want to gain an electron to
complete their valence energy level.

6.2.6 - Trend in
Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to
gain or attract electrons from another atom
• The +ve protons in the nucleus of one atom
attract the –ve electrons from another atom
• As the # of protons in the nucleus ↑, the
electronegativity ↑
• Therefore, electronegativity ↑across the period
• The most electronegative element is Fluorine
• Electronegativity decreases down a group
because the electrons are further from the
nucleus (larger atomic radius) so the nuclear
charge (positive charge of nucleus) is less
• The least electronegative element is Francium

6.2.6 - Trend in
Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is the ability of an
atom to gain electrons (attract or add
electrons)

Summary of Trends
1. Atomic Radius: Largest toward bottom left
corner of P.T.
1.
Summary of Trends
Ionization Energy greatest towards Top Right of
P.T.
1.
Summary of Trends
1. Atomic Radius: Largest toward bottom right
2. Ionization
corner of P.T. Energy: Greatest toward top left of P. T.
3. Electron Affinity: Greatest toward top Right of P.
T.
1.
Summary of Periodic
Table
• Periodic Table:
Table Map of the Building block of matter
• Type:
Type Metal, Metalloid, Nonmetal and Noble Gases
• Groupings: Representative or Main, Transition and
Lanthanide/Actanides
• Family:
Family Elements in the same column have similar
chemical properties because of similar valence
electrons (outer electrons)
• Alkali, Alkaline Earth Metals, Halogens, Noble gases
• Period: Elements in the same row show trends across
the period due to increasing atomic # (increasing
nuclear charge) across the period
College of the North Atlantic Qatar

7.4.1 VSEPR THEORY
• V = VALENCE
• S = SHELL
• E = ELECTRON
• P = PAIR
• R = REPULSION

7.4.1 ELECTRON PAIRS
• Atomic Orbitals may be filled with 2
electrons. Whenever two electrons
occupy an orbital they are called an
electron pair.
• Examples: He (1s2 ) has 2 e- in the 1s
orbital. These two electrons form an
electron pair.

7.4.1 TYPES OF ELECTRON
PAIRS
• Bonding Pair: A pair of electrons ( one
from each atom) used to create a bond
between the two atoms.
• Example: H : H The two electrons
bonding the Hydrogen atoms together
in a H2 molecule are a bonding pair.

PAIRS
• Non-Bonding Pair (Lone): A pair of
electrons occupying the same atomic
orbital which are not involved in
bonding one atom to another.
• Example: N 1s2 2s2 2p3 has 2 electrons
in the 2s orbital which are not involved
with bonding the Nitrogen atom to
other atoms.

PAIRS
• Non – Bonding (Lone) Pair in Ammonia
NH3
¨ ¨
H :N:H H-N- H
¨ l
H H

7.4.1 Types of Electron
Pairs

7.4.1 VSEPR THEORY
• VSEPR Theory suggests that the

structure around a given atom in a
molecule is determined by a tendency
to minimize electron-pair repulsions.
• All electrons are negative and repel
each other. Pairs of electrons also
repel each other.

7.4.2 MOLECULAR SHAPES
• The 3 dimensional shape of a
molecule in space is determined
by the repulsions between
electron pairs.
• Many molecules have a “central
atom” around which the other
atoms are arranged in space.
• The central atom is usually the
atom which can make the highest
number of bonds.

7.4.2 CENTRAL ATOM
• Carbon is the central
atom in the molecule
methane CH4
• Carbon is grey and

makes 4 bonds.
• Hydrogen is green
and makes 1 bond

7.4.2 CENTRAL ATOM
• Beryllium is the
central atom in the
Beryllium Bromide
molecule.
• Beryllium is Grey
and makes 2 bonds.
• Bromine is Red and

makes 1 bond

7.4.2 CENTRAL ATOM
• Boron is the central
atom in boron
trifluoride BF3
• Boron is orange
and makes 3 bonds
• Fluorine is green and

makes 1 bond

• Molecular Shapes are predictable if we
know how many bonds the central atom
can possibly make.
• The central atom has 360o of 3D space
around it. The non-central atoms will
spread out as much as possible in this
3D space.

• NOTE The shapes to be described on
the following slides apply to central
atoms around which there are only
Bonding Pairs.
• The expected shape will change slightly
if there are one or more non-bonding
(lone) pairs around the central atom.

7.4.2 ONE BOND = LINEAR
• When two atoms
share one bonding
pair of electrons,
the only possible
molecular shape is
linear
Example: H2
H:H
H - H
Separation 180 o

7.4.2 TWO BONDS = LINEAR
• When the central
atom makes two
bonds the best
possible molecular
shape is linear.
• The bonds are 180o
apart.
• Example: BeH2
H : Be : H
H – Be - H

7.4.2 THREE BONDS = TRIGONAL PLANAR
( TRIANGULAR)
• When the central atom

makes three bonds the
best possible molecular
shape is trigonal planar
(triangular)
• Example: AlCl3
The angle between the
Cl atoms is 120o
or 360o ÷ 3

7.4.2 Four Bonds = Tetrahedral
• When the central
atom makes four
bonds, the best
possible shape is
tetrahedral.
• Example: CH4
The angle between
the Hydrogen atoms
is 109.5o

7.4.3 Structural
Geometries
• The presence of one or more non-
bonding (lone) pairs around a central
atom can change the shape of the
molecule slightly.
• Non-Bonding (Lone) pairs of electrons
tend to be closer to the nucleus than
bonding pairs.

7.4.3 STRUCTURAL PAIR
GEOMETRIES
• N has 3 bonding pairs and 1 non-
bonding (lone) pair of electrons.
• The NH3 molecule should be tetrahedral
(109 o) but the presence of the non-
bonding (lone) pair reduces this to 107
o
.
• NH3 has a trigonal pyramid shape.

7.4.3 Structural Pair
Geometries

7.4.3 STRUCTURAL PAIR GEOMETRIES
• O has 2 bonding pairs

and 2 non-bonding (lone)
pair of electrons.
• The H2O molecule should

be tetrahedral (109.5 o )
but the presence of the 2
non-bonding (lone) pair
reduces this to 104.5 o.
• This shape is often called
“bent” or “v-shaped”.

7.4.4 STRUCTURAL VS MOLECULAR
GEOMETRIES
• Text Reference
• Table 7.4 Page 268 – 269
• This table gives the expected molecular
geometries if there are no non-bonding
(lone) pairs.
• Also, the changes expected in shape with 1,
2, or 3 non-bonding (lone) pairs.

7.4.5 BONDING
CONCEPTS
• Text Reference
• Chapter 10 in McMurry & Fay
• 10.1 Polar Covalent Bonds
• 10.2 Intermolecular Forces
Please refer to pp 381 – 390 for
additional information on Bonding
Concepts and Intermolecular Forces.

7.4.5 MOLECULAR POLARITY
• Non-Polar Molecules : Molecules in
which the distribution of electron
density is the same all around the
molecule.
• Non-Polar molecules result when
identical atoms or atoms with similar
electronegativity are involved.

• Polar Molecules : Molecules in which
the distribution of electron density is
NOT the same all around the molecule.
• Polar molecules result when atoms with
very different electronegativities are
involved.

• Polar Molecules can also result from a
distortion of the molecular shape due
to the presence of non-bonding (lone)
pairs around the central atom.

7.4.5 POLARITY OF MOLECULES
• Bond Dipole : A bond dipole is an arrow
used in a structural diagram to show
the uneven distribution of electron
density between two bonded atoms.

• Molecular Dipole : A molecular dipole is
an arrow used in a structural diagram
to show the uneven distribution of
electron density across the entire
molecule.

• Molecular Dipole
For Water

• Bond Dipoles vs Molecular Dipoles
A molecule may have more than one
dipole. If they are equal and opposite
they cancel and the molecule will NOT
have a molecular dipole.
Examples: CCl4
CO2 O=C=O

• Bond Dipoles vs Molecular Dipoles
A molecule may have more than one
dipole. If they are unequal and not
opposite they will NOT cancel and the
molecule will have a molecular dipole.
Examples: NH3 Trigonal Pyramid
H2O V- Shaped / Bent

7.5.1 INTRAMOLECULAR
FORCES
• Intramolecular Forces: Those forces
within an individual molecule which
holds the atoms of the molecule
together.
• The forces of attraction produced by
the sharing of electrons in Bonding
Pairs.

7.5.1 INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES
• Intermolecular Forces: Those forces of
attraction between molecules in a
substance which holds the molecules
together as a solid, liquid or gas.
• Intermolecular forces are strongest in
solids, weaker in liquids and almost
non-existent in gases.

7.5.1 INTER/INTRAMOLECULAR
FORCES

7.5.1 VAN de WAALS FORCES
• Van der Waals Forces: The term
describing all types of intermolecular
forces.
• London Dispersion Forces
• Dipole – Dipole Forces
• Hydrogen Bonding
• Ion – Dipole Forces

7.5.2 DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCE
• Dipole – Dipole Force: A force of
attraction or repulsion between polar
molecules.
• Opposite poles will attract.
• Similar poles will repel.

7.5.2 DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCE

7.5.4 INSTANTANEOUSLY INDUCED DIPOLE
INTERACTION
• Instantaneously Induced Dipoles

In some larger symmetrical molecules
with many electrons the distribution of
charge may be unsymmetrical at any
given instant. This results in the
formation of a temporary dipole within
the molecule. This can affect nearby
molecules.

7.5.4 INSTANTANEOUSLY
INDUCED DIPOLE INTERACTION

7.5.4 LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
• London Dispersion Forces:

Attractive forces which exist
between all molecules due to the
presence of electrons.
• LDF are very weak attractions
compared to ionic or covalent
bonds.
• LDF are directly related to the
number of electrons present in
the molecules.
• More compact molecules have
lower LDF than larger, spread out
molecules.
7.5.5 ION - ION FORCE
• Ion – Ion Force:
The type of
attraction which
exists within
ionic crystals
where oppositely
charged ions
attract.

7.5.6 ION – DIPOLE FORCE
• Ion – Dipole Force: A force of attraction
between a charged ion and the partial
charges on a polar molecule.
• Example: When NaCl dissolves in water
the positive and negative ions formed
are attracted to the polar water
molecules.

7.5.7 HYDROGEN BONDING
• Hydrogen Bonding: A type of
bonding which arises whenever
Hydrogen bonds with a highly-
electronegative atom. ( Fluorine /
Oxygen / Nitrogen)
• The H – F , H – O and H – N
bonds
tend to be very polar bonds. The
H
electron spends most of its time
close to
the electronegative atom.

7.5.7. HYDROGEN BONDING

7.5.8 METALLIC BONDING
• Metallic Bonding: A type of bonding
which exists in solid metals in which
electrons are free to move along the
surface of the metal.
• Metallic crystals are 3D arrays of metal
cations immersed in a sea of
delocalized electrons.

7.5.8 METALLIC BONDING
Metallic Bonding accounts for
many of the properties of metals.
Examples:
High conductivity of heat and
electricity
Ductility & Malleability

7.5.8 NETWORK COVALENT
BONDING
• Network Covalent Bonds: A special
type of covalent bond which results in
very high melting point solids which are
extremely hard.
• Examples: Diamond
Silicon Dioxide SiO2

8.1.1 DEFINE AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Aqueous Solution: Any solution in which
the solute is dissolved in the solvent
water.
8.1.2 DEFINE NON-AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
• Non-Aqueous Solutions: Solutions in
which the solute is dissolved in a
solvent OTHER THAN water.
8.1.3 LIST TYPES OF SOLUTIONS BY
PHYSICAL STATES
• Gaseous Solutions: Mixtures of gases.
• Example: The atmosphere is a mixture

of Nitrogen, Oxygen , Carbon Dioxide
and other trace gases.
PHYSICAL STATES
• Liquid Solutions: Mixtures of liquids.
• Example: Gasoline is usually a mixture

of different hydrocarbon liquids
PHYSICAL STATES
• Solid Solutions: Mixtures of solids.
• Example: Metal alloys are mixtures of

solid metals. Individual metals are
melted and then poured into one mold
to produce an alloy.
PHYSICAL STATES
Examples of Alloys:
• Brass is a mixture of Cu and Zn

• Bronze is a mixture of Cu & Sn
• Monel is a mixture of Cu & Ni
8.2.1 DESCRIBE HYDRATION
PROCESS
• Hydration: The process by which a
solute (solid. liquid or gas) is dissolved
by water.
8.3.1 DEFINE ARRHENIUS ACID
• Arrhenius Acid: Any substance which
dissolves in water and dissociates to
produce H+ (aq) ions.
Examples:
HCl (g) → H+ (aq) + Cl – (aq)
HNO3 (aq) → H + (aq) + NO3 – (aq)

8.3.2 DEFINE BRONSTED-LOWRY
ACID
• Bronsted-Lowry Acid: Any substance
which can transfer a proton (H+) to
another substance.
Example:
HNO2 (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + NO2- (aq)
8.3.3 DEFINE ARRHENIUS BASE
• Arrhenius Base: Any substance which
dissolves in water and dissociates to
produce OH- (aq) ions.
Examples:
NaOH (S) → Na+ (aq) + OH – (aq)
KOH (s) → K + (aq) + OH – (aq)

8.3.4 DEFINE BRONSTED-LOWRY
BASE
• Bronsted-Lowry Base: Any substance
which can accept a proton (H+) from
another substance.
Example:
HS- (aq) + HF (aq) → F- (aq) + H2S (aq)
8.3.5 PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
Acids …
- Solids, Liquids or gases as pure
substances at room temp.
- Soluble in water
- Taste sour
- Form conducting solutions
- Turn Blue Litmus to Red
8.3.5 PROPERTIES OF BASES
Bases …
- Solids at room temperature
- Soluble in water
- Taste bitter
- Form conducting solutions
- Turn Red Litmus to Blue.
8.3.6 PROCESS OF IONIZATION
Ionization: The process by which neutral
atoms lose or gain one or more
electrons to form ions.
Examples:
Na → Na + + 1 e –
F + 1e- → F-
8.3.6 PROCESS OF DISSOCIATION
Dissociation: The process by which a
molecule dissociates into positive and
negative ions.
Examples:
CaCl2 (s) → Ca 2+ (aq) + 2 Cl – (aq)
Ba(OH)2 (s) → Ba 2+ (aq) + 2 OH – (aq)

8.3.7 DEFINE ELECTYROLYTE
Electrolyte: Any substance which
dissolves in water and produces a
solution which conducts electricity.
Electrolytes provide mobile aqueous
ions in solution which conduct current.
8.3.7 DEFINE NON-ELECTROLYTE
Non-Electrolyte: Any substance which
dissolves in water and forms a solution
which does NOT conduct electricity.
Molecular compounds are typical non-
electrolytes since they do not form ions
in solution.
8.3.8 DEFINE AMPHIPROTIC
Amphoteric: A term which describes any
substance which can behave like a B-L
Acid or a B-L base.
Molecules or Anions with available

Hydrogen may be amphoteric.
8.3.8 Amphoteric Examples
Hydrogen Carbonate Ion HCO3-
Acting as a B-L Acid:

HCO3- (aq) + OH- (aq) → CO32-(aq) + H2O (l)
Acting as a B-L Base:

HCO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq) → H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
8.3.9 DEFINE POLYPROTIC ACID
Polyprotic Acid: Any acid which has more
than one Hydrogen atom that
dissociates.
Examples:
H2SO4 (aq) yields 2 H+ ions
H3PO4 (aq) yields 3 H+ ions
8.3.10 DEFINE NEUTRALIZATION
REACTION
Neutralization Reaction: A reaction
between an acid and a base which
produces water and a salt.
Example:
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → HOH (l)+ NaCl (aq)
8.3.11 FORMULAS OF COMMON
ACIDS
Common Mineral Acids
Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq)
Nitric Acid HNO3 (aq)
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 (aq)

8.3.11 FORMULAS OF COMMON
BASES
Common Bases:
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Lithium Hydroxide LiOH
Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH)2
Strontium Hydroxide Sr(OH)2

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CH1200 UNIT 1.0 CHEMICAL

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

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• Significant Figures apply to the

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1. ALL NONZERO DIGITS ARE SIGNIFICANT.

2. LEADING ZEROS THAT BEGIN A

3. CAPTIVE ZEROS BETWEEN NON-ZERO

4. TRAILING ZEROS ARE ONLY

5. EXACT NUMBERS ARE ALWAYS

Sometimes it is necessary to Round Off

If the digit to be removed

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Ex: 4.56 x 1.4 = 6.384 or 6.4

Ex: 8.315 = 0.0279027 or 0.0279

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The Metric System of Measurement uses

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Most commonly used Metric Units for

Kilogram Kg 1000 g = 103 g = 1Kg

Milligram mg 0.001 g = 10-3 g = 1mg

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Most Commonly used Metric Units for

Kilometer Km 1000 m or 103 m

Centimeter cm 0.01 m or 10-2 m

Millimeter mm 0.001 m or 10-3 m

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Most commonly used Metric Units for

Liter L 1000mL = 103mL

Milliliter mL 1/1000 L = 10-3 L = 1 mL

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CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

1. All metals are solid (except for

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS

1. Non-metals can be solids, liquids or

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Metalloid: An element which has both

The list of metalloids includes:

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METALLIC PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS:

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Symbols are used to represent Chemical

SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS 1 - 10

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SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS 11 – 20

The symbols for some elements come

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• Molecular Formula: The exact formula

The type of atom is indicated by the