ANIMAL

MOVEMENT AND
MUSCULAR
SYSTEM

ANIMAL MOVEMENT

Movement is an important characteristic of

animals.
Animal movement occurs in many forms in
animal tissues, ranging from barely discernible
streaming of cytoplasm to extensive movements
of powerful striated muscles.
Most animal movement depends on a single
fundamental mechanism: contractile proteins,
which can change their form to elongate or
contract.

ANIMAL MOVEMENT

This contractile machinery is always composed of

ultrafine fibrils fine filaments, striated fibrils,
or tubular fibrils (microtubules)arranged to
contract when powered by ATP.
By far the most important protein contractile
system is the actomyosin system, composed of
two proteins, actin and myosin.
This is an almost universal biomechanical system
found from protozoa to vertebrates; it performs a
long list of diverse functional roles. Cilia and
flagella, however, are composed of different
proteins, and thus are exceptions to the rule.

AMOEBOID MOVEMENT

Ameboid movement is a form of movement

especially characteristic of amebas and other
unicellular forms; it is also found in many
wandering cells of metazoans, such as white
blood cells, embryonic mesenchyme, and
numerous other mobile cells that move
through the tissue spaces.

Ameboid cells change

their shape by
sending out and
withdrawing
pseudopodia (false
feet) from any point
on the cell surface.
Beneath the
plasmalemma lies a
nongranular layer,
the gel-like
ectoplasm, which
encloses the more
liquid endoplasm.

CILIARY MOVEMENT

Cilia are minute, hairlike, motile

processes that extend from the
surfaces of the cells of many
animals.
They are a particularly distinctive
feature of ciliate protistans, but
except for nematodes in which
motile cilia are absent and
arthropods in which they are rare,
cilia are found in all major groups
of animals.

CILIARY MOVEMENT

Cilia perform many

roles either in moving
small organisms such
as unicellular ciliates,
flagellates, and
ctenophores through
their aquatic
environment or in
propelling fluids and
materials across
epithelial surfaces of
larger animals.

CILIARY MOVEMENT

Cilia are of remarkably

uniform diameter (0.2
to 0.5 m) wherever they
are found.
The electron microscope
has shown that each
cilium contains a
peripheral circle of nine
double microtubules
arranged around two
single microtubules in
the center

CILIARY MOVEMENT

Each microtubule is composed of a spiral

array of protein subunits called tubulin.
The microtubule doublets around the
periphery are connected to each other
and to the central pair of microtubules
by a complex system of connective
elements.
Also extending from each doublet is a
pair of arms composed of the protein
dynein.
The dynein arms, which act as cross
bridges between the doublets, operate to
produce a sliding force between the
microtubules.

FLAGELLAR MOVEMENT

A flagellum is a whiplike structure longer than a cilium and

usually present singly or in small numbers at one end of a cell.
They are found in members of flagellate protistans, in animal
spermatozoa, and in sponges.

FLAGELLAR MOVEMENT

A flagellum beats
symmetrically with
snakelike undulations
so that water is
propelled parallel to
the long axis of the
flagellum.
A cilium, in contrast,
beats asymmetrically
with a fast power stroke
in one direction
followed by a slow
recovery during which
the cilium bends as it
returns to its original
position

MUSCLE MOVEMENT:
VERTEBRATE MUSCLE- TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
Skeletal

muscle tissue

Associated with & attached to the skeleton

Under our conscious (voluntary) control

Microscopically the tissue appears striated
Cells are long, cylindrical & multinucleate

MUSCLE MOVEMENT:
VERTEBRATE MUSCLE- TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
Smooth

(visceral) muscle tissue

Makes up walls of organs & blood vessels

Tissue is non-striated & involuntary

Cells are short, spindle-shaped & have a single nucleus
Tissue is extremely extensible, while still retaining ability to
contract

MUSCLE MOVEMENT:
VERTEBRATE MUSCLE- TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
Cardiac

muscle tissue

Makes up myocardium of heart

Unconsciously (involuntarily) controlled
Microscopically appears striated
Cells are short, branching & have a single nucleus
Cells connect to each other at intercalated discs

ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

MICROANATOMY OF MUSCLE FIBER

(CELL)

MICROANATOMY OF MUSCLE FIBER

(CELL)

MICROANATOMY OF MUSCLE FIBER

(CELL)

MUSCLE MOVEMENT:
INVERTEBRATE MUSCLE

Smooth and striated muscles are also

characteristic of invertebrate animals, but
there are many variations of both types and
even instances in which structural and
functional features of vertebrate smooth and
striated muscle are combined.
Striated muscle appears in invertebrate
groups as diverse as cnidarians and
arthropods.

The thickest muscle fibers known,

approximately 3 mm in diameter and 6 cm
long, are those of giant barnacles and of
Alaska king crabs living along
the Pacific coast of North America.

MUSCLE MOVEMENT:
INVERTEBRATE MUSCLE

Smooth and striated muscles are also

characteristic of invertebrate animals, but
there are many variations of both types and
even instances in which structural and
functional features of vertebrate smooth and
striated muscle are combined.
Striated muscle appears in invertebrate
groups as diverse as cnidarians and
arthropods.

The thickest muscle fibers known,

approximately 3 mm in diameter and 6 cm
long, are those of giant barnacles and of
Alaska king crabs living along
the Pacific coast of North America.

MUSCLE MOVEMENT:
INVERTEBRATE MUSCLE

Bivalve molluscan muscles contain

fibers of two types.
One kind is striated muscle that
can contract rapidly, enabling the
bivalve to snap shut its valves
when disturbed. Scallops use these
fast muscle fibers to swim in
their awkward
The second muscle type is smooth
muscle, capable of slow, longlasting contractions. Using these
fibers, a bivalve can keep its valves
tightly shut for hours or even days.

MUSCLE MOVEMENT:
INVERTEBRATE MUSCLE

Insect flight muscles are virtually the

functional antithesis of the slow, holding
muscles of bivalves.
The wings of some small flies operate at
frequencies greater than 1000 beats per
second.
The so-called fibrillar muscle, which
contracts at these frequencies far greater
than even the most active of vertebrate
musclesshows unique characteristics.
It has very limited extensibility; that is,
the wing leverage system is arranged so
that the muscles shorten only slightly
during each downbeat of the wings.

MUSCLE MOVEMENT:
INVERTEBRATE MUSCLE

Furthermore, muscles
and wings operate as a
rapidly oscillating
system in an elastic
thorax.
Since the muscles
rebound elastically and
are activated by stretch
during flight, they
receive impulses only
periodically rather than
one impulse per
contraction; one
reinforcement impulse
for every 20 or 30
contractions is enough to
keep the system active.