Chapter 19

Basic Op-Amp
Circuits

Objectives
Explain the basic operation of a comparator circuit
Analyze summing amplifiers, averaging amplifiers,
and scaling amplifiers
Explain the operation of op-amp integrators and
differentiators
Discuss the operation of several types of op-amp
oscillators
Recognize and evaluate basic op-amp filters
Describe the operation of basic series and shunt
voltage regulators

Comparators
One application of the op-amp used as a
comparator is to determine when an input voltage
exceeds a certain level
The inverting input is tied to a reference voltage (the
reference voltage may be ground, or a voltage level),
and the signal is applied to the noninverting input
Because of the high open-loop gain, a very small
difference voltage between the two inputs drives the
amplifier into saturation, causing the output voltage to
go to its limit

Comparators

Summing Amplifiers
The summing amplifier
has two or more inputs,
and its output voltage
is proportional to the
negative of the
algebraic sum of its
input voltages

VOUT = - (VIN1 + VIN2

+ VIN3 + + VINn)

Summing Amplifiers
Summing Amplifier with Gain Greater than Unity
When Rf is larger than the input resistors, the amplifier has
a gain of Rf/R, where R is the value of each input resistor:

VOUT = - (VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3 + + VINn) Rf/R

Averaging Amplifier
By setting the ratio Rf/R equal to the reciprocal of the
number of inputs, the result is the mathematical average of
the input voltages

Summing Amplifiers
Scaling Adder
A different weight can be assigned to each input of a
summing amplifier, by adjusting the values of the
individual input resistors (the smaller the value of the
input resistance R, the greater the weight, and vice
versa)

VOUT = - ((Rf/R1)VIN1 + (Rf/R2)VIN2 + (Rf/R3)VIN3 +

+ (Rf/Rn)VINn)

Integrators and Differentiators

An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical
integration, which is basically a summing process
that determines the area under the curve of a
function
An op-amp differentiator simulates mathematical
differentiation, which is a process of determining
the instantaneous rate of change of a function

Integrators and Differentiators

An ideal integrator is
shown
The feedback element
is a capacitor that
forms an RC circuit
with the input resistor

Integrators and Differentiators

The capacitor voltage in a simple RC circuit is not
linear but is exponential
When using an op-amp with an RC circuit to form an
integrator, the capacitors charging current is made
constant, thus producing a linear voltage rather than an
exponential voltage
If Vin is a constant voltage, then Iin is also a constant because
the inverting input always remains at 0 V
Since Iin is constant, so is IC
The constant IC charges the capacitor linearly and produces a
linear voltage across C

Integrators and Differentiators

An ideal differentiator
is shown
The capacitor is now
the input element
A differentiator
produces and output
that is proportional to
the rate of change of
the input voltage

Integrators and Differentiators

On a differentiator, IC = Iin and the voltage across the
capacitor is equal to Vin at all times because of the
virtual ground on the inverting input
Since the current at the inverting input is negligible, I R=IC,
both currents are constant because the slope of the
capacitor voltage (VC/t) is constant
The output voltage is also constant and equal to the voltage
across Rf because one side of the feedback resistor is
always at virtual ground

Vout = -(VC/t)RfC

Oscillators
One type of sinusoidal oscillator is the Wien-bridge
oscillator
A fundamental part of the Wien-bridge oscillator is a leadlag circuit shown below

Oscillators
R1 and C1 together form the lag portion of the circuit;
R2 and C2 form the lead portion
At lower frequencies, the lead circuit dominates due
to the high reactance of C2
As the frequency increases, XC2 decreases, allowing
the output voltage to increase
At some specified frequency, the response of the lag
circuit takes over, and the decreasing value of X C1
causes the output voltage to decrease

Oscillators
The output voltage peaks at the resonant frequency fr
At this point, the attenuation (V out/Vin) of the circuit is 1/3

The formula for the resonant frequency is:

fr = 1 / (2RC)
The lead-lag circuit has a resonant frequency, fr, at
which the phase shift through the circuit is 0 and
the attenuation is 1/3
Below fr, the lead circuit dominates (output leads input)
Above fr, the lag circuit dominates (output lags input)

Oscillators

Oscillators
One practical implementation of a triangular-wave
oscillator is shown below

Oscillators
The basic square-wave
oscillator shown is a
type of relaxation
oscillator because its
operation is based on
the charging and
discharging of a
capacitor

Active Filters
The term active filter means that a gain element is used; in this
case, an op-amp
The circuit below is a voltage-follower and an RC filter
between the input signal and the non-inverting input, to
produce a low pass filter

Active Filters
A filter with one RC circuit that produces a -20
dB/decade roll-off beginning at fc is said to be a
single-pole or first-order filter
The term -20dB/decade means that the voltage
gain decreases by ten times (-20 dB) when the
frequency increases by ten times (decade)
A two-pole (second order) low-pass filter uses two RC
circuits to produce a roll-off rate of -40 dB/decade

Active Filters
A single-pole high-pass active filter with a -20
dB/decade roll-off is shown below
Ideally all frequencies above fc pass without limit

Active Filters
All op-amps inherently have internal RC circuits
that limit the amplifiers response at high
frequencies
Such is the case with the active high-pass filter
There is an upper frequency limit to its response, which
makes this type of filter a band-pass filter with a very
wide bandwidth rather than a true high-pass filter
In many applications, the internal high-frequency cutoff
is so much greater than the filters critical frequency that
the internal high-frequency cutoff can be neglected

Active Filters
One way to implement
a band-pass filter is to
use a cascaded
arrangement of a highpass filter followed by
a low-pass filter
The critical frequency
of each filter is chosen
so that the response
curves overlap

Voltage Regulators
In a series regulator, the control element is in
series with the load between input and output
The output sample circuit senses a change in the
output voltage
The error detector compares the sample voltage
with a reference voltage and causes the control
element to compensate in order to maintain a
constant output voltage

Voltage Regulators

Voltage Regulators
In the basic shunt regulator, the control element is a
transistor (Q1) in parallel with the load
A series resistor (R1) is in series with the load
The operation of the circuit is similar to that of the
series regulator, except that the regulation is
achieved by controlling the current through the
parallel transistor Q1
As output voltage varies, Q1 is driven to compensate for
the change in voltage (Q 1 acts as a voltage divider with R 1)

Voltage Regulators

Summary
In an op-amp comparator, when the input voltage
exceeds a specified reference voltage, the output
changes state
The output voltage of a summing amplifier is
proportional to the sum of the input voltages
An averaging amplifier is a summing amplifier
with a closed-loop gain equal to the reciprocal of
the number of inputs

Summary
In a scaling adder, a different weight can be assigned
to each input, thus making the input contribute more
or contribute less to the output
The integral of a step is a ramp
The derivative of a ramp is a step
In a Wien-bridge oscillator, the closed-loop gain must
be equal to 3 in order to have unity gain around the
positive feedback loop
In filter terminology, a single RC circuit is called a
pole

Summary
Each pole in a filter causes the output to roll off
(decrease) at a rate of -20 dB/decade
Two-pole filters roll off at a maximum rate of -40
dB/decade
In a series voltage regulator, the control element is a
transistor in series with the load
In a shunt voltage regulator, the control element is a
transistor in parallel with a load
The terminals on a three-terminal regulator are input
voltage, output voltage, and ground