Chapter 1 Mathematical Preliminaries

Common Variable Types in Elasticity

Elasticity theory is a mathematical model of material deformation.
Using principles of continuum mechanics, it is formulated in terms of
many different types of field variables specified at spatial points in the
body under study. Some examples include:
Scalars - Single magnitude
mass density , temperature T, modulus of elasticity E, . . .
u ue1 vein
we 3 ,dimensions
Vectors Three components
three
e1, e2, e3 are unit basis
2
displacement vector
vectors

Matrices Nine components in three dimensions

x xy xz
stress matrix

[] yx y yz
zx zy z

Other Variables with more than nine components

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Index/Tensor Notation
With the wide variety of variables, elasticity formulation makes
use of a tensor formalism using index notation. This enables
efficient representation of all variables and governing equations
using a single standardized method.
a1
a11 a12 a13
Index notation is a shorthand scheme
a i a 2 , a ij a 21 a 22 a 23
whereby a whole set of numbers or

a 3
a 31 a 32 a 33
components can be represented by a
single symbol with subscripts
In general a symbol aijk with N distinct indices represents 3N
distinct
numbers
Addition,
subtraction, multiplication and equality of index
symbols are defined in the normal fashion; e.g.
a1 b1
a11 b11 a12 b12
ai bi a 2 b2 , aij bij a 21 b21 a 22 b22

a 3 b3
a31 b31 a32 b32
a1
a11 a12
ai a 2 , aij a 21 a 22

a 3
a 31 a32

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a13
a 23

a 33

a13 b13
a 23 b23

a33 b33

a1b1
ai b j a 2 b1

a 3b1

a1b2
a 2 b2
a3b2

a1b3
a 2 b3

a 3b3

Notation Rules and Definitions

Summation Convention - if a subscript appears twice in
the same term, summation over that subscript from one to
three is implied; for3 example
aii aii a11 a22 a33
i 1

aij b j aij b j ai1b1 ai 2b2 ai 3b3

j 1

A symbol aijmnk is said to be symmetric with respect to

index pair mn if
aij... m... n ... k aij... n... m... k
A symbol aijmnk is said to be antisymmetric with respect to
index pair mn if
aij... m... n ... k aij... n... m... k
1

Useful Identity aij 2 ( aij a ji ) 2 (aij a ji ) a( ij ) a[ij ]

a( ij )

Elasticity

1
( aij a ji ). . . symmetric
2

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a[ij ]

1
( aij a ji.) . . antisymmetric
2

Example 1-1: Index Notation Examples

The matrix aij and vector bi are specified by

1 2 0

aij 0 4 3 , bi
2 1 2

2
4
0

Determine the following quantities: aii , aij aij , a ij a jk , aij b j , aij bi b j , bi bi , bi b j , a ( ij ) , a[ij ]
Indicate whether they are a scalar, vector or matrix.
Following the standard definitions given in section 1.2,
aii a11 a 22 a33 7 (scalar)
aij aij a11 a11 a12 a12 a13 a13 a 21 a 21 a 22 a 22 a 23 a 23 a31 a31 a32 a32 a33 a33
1 4 0 0 16 9 4 1 4 39 (scalar)
1 10 6
aij a jk ai1 a1k ai 2 a 2 k ai 3 a3k 6 19 18 (matrix)
6 10 7
10
aij b j ai1b1 ai 2 b2 ai 3b3 16 (vector)
8

a ( ij )

aij bi b j a11b1b1 a12 b1b2 a13b1b3 a 21b2 b1 84 (scalar)

bi bi b1b1 b2 b2 b3b3 4 16 0 20 (scalar)
4 8 0
bi b j 8 16 0 (matrix)
0 0 0

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a[ ij ]

1
1
1
aij a ji 0
2
2
2
1
1
1
aij a ji 0
2
2
2

2 0
1
1

4 3 2
2
0
1 2
2 0
1
1

4 3 2
2
0
1 2

0 2

4 1

3 2
0 2

4 1

3 2

1 1 1
1 4 2
1 2 2
0
1
1 0
1 1

(matrix)
1
1 (matrix)
0

Special Index Symbols

1 0 0
1 , if i j ( no sum )
0 1 0
Kronecker Delta ij

0 , if i j
0 0 1
ij ji
ii 3 , i i 1

Properties: ij a j ai , ij ai a j
ij a jk aik , jk aik aij
ij aij aii , ij ij 3
1 , if ijk is an even permutation of 1,2,3

ijk 1 , if ijk is an odd permutation of 1,2,3

Alternating or Permutation Symbol

0 , otherwise

123 = 231 = 312 = 1, 321 = 132 = 213 =

222 = . . . = 0
a11
Useful in evaluating
det[ aij ] | aij | a 21
determinants
a 31
and vector cross-products

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-1, 112 = 131 =

a12
a 22
a32

a13
a 23 ijk a1i a 2 j a 3k ijk ai1a j 2 a k 3
a33

Coordinate Transformations
x3
x
3

v
e3

x
e

3
2

e2

e1

x2

e
x1

x
1

To express elasticity variables in

different coordinate systems requires
development of transformation rules
for scalar, vector, matrix and higher
order variables a concept connected
with basic definitions of tensor
( x1, x 2 , x 3The
)
variables.
two Cartesian frames
(x1,x2,x3) and
differ only
by orientation

Qij cos( xi, x j )

Using Rotation
Matrix
e1 Q11e1 Q12 e 2 Q13e 3

e 2 Q21e1 Q22 e 2 Q23e 3

e 3 Q31e1 Q32 e 2 Q33e 3

v v1e1 v 2 e 2 v3e 3 vi ei
v1e1 v 2 e 2 v3 e3 viei

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ei Qij e j

ei Q ji e j

transformation
laws for
vi Q ji v j
Cartesian vector
components

vi Qij v j

Cartesian Tensors
General Transformation Laws
Scalars, vectors, matrices, and higher order quantities can be
represented by an index notational scheme, and thus all
quantities may then be referred to as tensors of different orders.
The transformation properties of a vector can be used to
establish the general transformation properties of these tensors.
Restricting the transformations to those only between Cartesian
coordinate systems, the general set of transformation relations
a a , zero order (scalar)
for various orders
are:
ai Qip a p , first order (vector)

aij QipQ jq a pq , second order (matrix)

QipQ jqQkr a pqr , third order
aijk
QipQ jqQkr Qls a pqrs , fourth order
aijkl

... m QipQ jqQkr Qmt a pqr... t general order

aijk

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Example 1-2 Transformation Examples

The components of a first and second order tensor in a particular coordinate frame are given by
1
1 0 3

ai 4 , aij 0 2 2

2
3 2 4

x3
x

Determine the components of each tensor in a new

coordinate system found through a rotation of 60o (/6
radians) about the x3-axis. Choose a counterclockwise
rotation when viewing down the negative x3-axis, see
Figure
1-2. and primed coordinate systems are shown in
The
original
Figure 1-2. The solution starts by determining the
rotation matrix for this case
3 / 2 0
cos 60 cos 30 cos 90 1 / 2

Qij cos 150 cos 60 cos 90 3 / 2 1 / 2 0

0
0
1
cos 90 cos 90 cos 0

x
2

60

x2

x
x1

The transformation for the vector quantity follows from equation

(1.5.1)2
1/ 2
1 / 2 2 3
3 / 2 0 1

ai Qij a j 3 / 2 1 / 2 0 4 2 3 / 2

0
0
1
2

and the second order tensor (matrix)

according to (1.5.1)3
1/ 2
3 / 2 0 1 0

aij Qip Q jq a pq 3 / 2 1 / 2 0 0 2

0
0
1 3 2

Elasticity

transforms
3
2

1/ 2

3/2
4
0

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3 / 2 0

1 / 2 0
0
1

7/4
3/4

3/4
5/ 4

3 / 2 3 1 3 3 / 2

3/ 2 3

1 3 3 / 2
4

Principal Values and

Directions for Symmetric
Second
Order
The direction
determined by
unit vector nTensors
is said to be a principal
direction or eigenvector of the symmetric second order tensor aij
if there exists a parameter (principal value or eigenvalue) such
that
a n n
( a )n 0
ij

ij

ij

Relation is a homogeneous system of three linear algebraic

equations in the unknowns n1, n2, n3. The system possesses
nontrivial solution if and only if determinant of coefficient matrix
vanishes
3
2

det[ aij ij ] I a II a III a 0

scalars Ia, IIa and IIIa are called the fundamental invariants of
the tensor aij
I a aii a11 a 22 a33
II a

a
a12 a 22
1
( aii a jj aij aij ) 11

a 21 a 22 a32
2

III a det[ aij ]

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a 23 a11

a33 a31

a13
a33

Principal Axes of Second Order Tensors

It is always possible to identify a right-handed Cartesian
coordinate system such that each axes lie along principal
directions of any given symmetric second order tensor. Such
axes are called the principal axes of the tensor, and the basis
vectors are the principal directions {n(1), n(2) , n(3)}
x3

a11
aij a21
a31

a12
a22
a32

1
aij 0

a13

a23
a33

x2

x1

Original Given Axes

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Principal Axes

Example 1-3 Principal Value

Problem
Determine the invariants, and principal values and
directions of

2 0 0
aij 0 3 4

0 4 3

2 0
3 4
2 0
I a aii 2 3 3 2 , II a

6 25 6 25
0
3
4

3
0

3
First determine the principal invariants
2 0 0
III a 0 3 4 2(9 16) 50
0 4 3

The characteristic equation then becomes

det[aij ij ] 3 22 25 50 0 ( 2)(2 25) 0
1 5 , 2 2 , 3 5

Thus for this case all principal values are

distinct
For the 1 = 5root,
(1.6.1) gives the
3n1(1) equation
0
system
2n2(1) 4n3(1) 0
4n2(1) 8n3(1) 0

1
( 2e 2 e 3 )
5
1
(2)
( 3)
( e 2 2e 3 )
In similar fashion the other two principal directions are n e1 n
5
It
is
easily
verified
that
these
directions
are
mutually
orthogonal.
found to be
Note for this case, the transformation matrix Qij defined by (1.4.1)
becomes
0 2 / 5 1/ 5
5 0 0

Qij 1
0
0 aij 0 2 0
0 1/ 5 2 / 5
0 0 5

n(1)
which gives a normalized solution

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Vector, Matrix and Tensor Algebra

a b a1b1 a 2 b2 a 3b3 ai bi
Scalar or Dot Product

e1
Vector or Cross Producta b a1
b1

e2
a2
b2

e3
a 3 ijk a j bk ei
b3

Common Matrix Products

Aa [ A]{a} Aij a j a j Aij
aT A {a}T [ A] ai Aij Aij ai

AB [ A][ B] Aij B jk
ABT Aij Bkj
AT B A ji B jk
tr( AB) Aij B ji
tr( ABT ) tr( AT B ) Aij Bij

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SecondOrder
TransformationLaw
aij Qip Q jq a pq
a QaQ T

Calculus of Cartesian
Tensors
a a ( x1 , x 2 , x3 ) a ( xi ) a ( x )
Field concept for tensor components
ai ai ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ai ( xi ) ai ( x )
aij aij ( x1 , x 2 , x3 ) aij ( xi ) aij ( x )

a,i
a , ai , j
ai , aij ,k
aij ,
Comma notation for partial differentiation
xi
x j
xk

If differentiation index is distinct, order of the tensor will be

increased by one; e.g. derivative operation on a vector produces
a second order tensor or matrix

ai , j

Elasticity

a1
x
1
a 2

x1
a
3

x1

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a1
x 2
a 2
x 2
a3
x 2

a1
x3
a 2
x3
a3

x3

Vector Differential
Operations
df

f dx

f dy

f dz

n f
Directional Derivative of Scalar Field
ds x ds y ds z ds
n unitnormalvectorin directionof s

vectordifferenti
al operator e1

dx
dy
dz
e1
e2 e3
ds
ds
ds

e2
e3
x
y
z

f grad f gradientof scalarfunctionf e1

f
f
f
e2
e3
x
y
z

Common Differential Operations

Gradient of a Scalar ,i e i
Gradient of a Vector

u u i , j e i e j

Laplacian of a Scalar 2 ,ii

Divergence of a Vector u ui ,i
Curl of a Vector
Laplacian of a Vector
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u ijk u k , j e i
2 u ui ,kk e i

Example 1-4: Scalar/Vector Field

Example
x y u 2 xe 3 yze xye
Scalar and vector field functions are given by
2

Calculate the following expressions, , 2, u,

u, u.

Using the basic relations:

Contours =constant and vector distributions of

vector field is orthogonal to -contours (ture in general
Gradient Vector Distribution

10
2 xe1 2 ye2
2 2 2 - 0(satisfies Laplace equation) 8

u 2 3 z 0 2 3 z

2 0 0

u ui , j 0 3z 3 y
y x 0
e1
e2
e3
u / x / y / z ( x 3 y )e1 ye2
2x
3 yz
xy

6
4
2

0
-2

-4
-6
-8
-10

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-10

-5

10

Vector/Tensor Integral
Calculus
Divergence TheoremS u n dS V u dV
Stokes TheoremCu dr S ( u) n dS

aij... k nk dS aij... k ,k dV
V

aij... k dxt rst aij... k ,s n r dS

S

Greens Theorem in the Plane

g f
S x y dxdy C ( fdx gdy )

Zero-Value Theorem

Elasticity

g
S x dxdy C gn x ds ,

f ij... k dV 0 f ij... k 0 V

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f
S y dxdy C fn y ds

Orthogonal Curvilinear
Coordinate Systems
x
3

e R

e
1

e
x
2

x
1

Cylindrical Coordinate
(r,,z)
x r System
cos , x r sin
, x z
1

r x12 x22 , tan 1

x2
, z x3
x1

Spherical Coordinate
x1 R cos System
sin , x2 R(R,,)
sin sin , x3 R cos
R x12 x22 x32
cos 1

x3
x12 x22 x32

tan 1

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x2
,
x1

General Curvilinear
Coordinate Systems
Common Differential Forms
e1

1
1
1
1
e 2
e 3
e i
1
2
3
h1
h2
h3
hi i
i

f e1

1 f
1 f
1 f
1 f
e 2
e3
e i
1
2
3
h1
h2
h3
hi i
i

1
h1 h2 h3

u
i

( x , x , x ) , x x ( , , )
m

(ds ) (h1d ) (h2 d ) (h3d )

2

1 2

2 2

3 2

u
i

2 u

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h1 h2 h3

u i
i
hi

1
h1 h2 h3

ijk

(u k hk )e i
h j hk j

e i
hi

u j

e i
i
i

h
i

h1 h2 h3

i
2
i
(hi )

e j u j

e j
e k u j
e j u j k

k

k

h
j

e j

Example 1-5: Polar

Coordinates
From relations (1.9.5) or simply using the geometry shown in Figure

e r cos e1 sin e 2
e sin e1 cos e 2

e
e
e r
e
e , e r , r 0

r
r

The basic vector differential operations then follow to be

1
e r
e
r
r

1
e r
e
r
r
1
1 u
u
( ru r )
r r
r
1
1 2
2

r
r r r r 2 2

1 u r
1
(ru )
e z
r
r r
u
u
1 u r
1 u

u r e r e r e r e
u e e r
u r e e
r
r
r
r

u
u
2 u
2 u

2 u 2 u r 2 2r e r 2 u 2 r 2 e
r r
r r

where u u r e r ue , e z e r e

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( ds ) 2 (dr ) 2 (rd) 2 h1 1 , h2 r