Chapter 2

LEMENTS AND
COMPOUNDS

SABAR G. HASAN, MAED

Science Instructor
Davao del Norte State College

OBJECTIVES:

Distinguish between elements and compounds.

Match names and symbols of common elements.
List the postulates of the atomic theory.
List the components of an atom and their relative

masses, charges and location in the atom.

Define the terms atomic number, mass number, and
isotopes.
Using the table of elements, determine the number of
protons, neutrons and electrons in any isotope of an
element.
Demonstrate how the atomic mass of an element is
determined from isotopes and their percent
abundance.

2-1

THE ELEMENTS

THE ELEMENTS

LOOKING AHEAD!
Many of the most basic forms of matter elements

are familiar to us, but some are not.

In our complex world, we simplify our
understanding by organizing into general
classification
Many sciences group their disciplines into
categories
Example:
Biology is divided into the study of plants (flora) and animals
(fauna)
Geology divides its study into the continents and the oceans
Matter in Chemistry is placed into one of two categories

THE ELEMENTS

All of the matter that we see around us from the

content of this room to the farthest stars in space is

essentially composed of fewer than 90 unique
substances called elements
ELEMENT is the basic form of matter that exists

under ordinary condition.

It cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
COMPOUND is a unique substance that is

composed of two or more elements that are

chemically combined.

FREE ELEMENTS IN
s
NATURE
Only a few elements
are found around us in their free
state; that is, they are not combined with any other
element.
Examples of free elements found in nature:
Shiny gold in a ring
The life-supporting oxygen
The carbon in a sparkling diamond
Small amount of iron found in certain meteorites

Other free elements put to use:

Aluminum in a can
Iron in a bridge support

THE NAMES OF ELEMENTS

The names of elements come from many sources.
Examples:

Derived from Greek, Latin or German words for colors:

bismuth (white mass)
iridium (rainbow)
rubidium (deep red)
chlorine (greenish-yellow)

Related to the locality where element was discovered:

germanium
francium
californium

THE NAMES OF ELEMENTS

The names of elements come from many sources.
Examples:

4 elements named after a town in Sweden (Ytterby):

yttrium, erbium, terbium & ytterbium

Elements in honor to noted scientists:

einsteinium, fermium & curium
Mythological figures:
plutonium, uranium, titanium & mercury
Many of the oldest known elements have names with

obscure origins.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THEs

ELEMENTS
We trace the origins
of the elements from the big bang to
the current day on our comfortable planet, Earth.
The original universe was composed of just three
elements:
HYDROGEN (90 %)
HELIUM (10 %)
LITHIUM (trace amount)

For the last 14 billion years, all other elements have been

produced from the original hydrogen in the cores of billions

of stars and from the supernova explosions at the end of
the stars lives
Solar activity converted only about 0.25 % of the mass of
the universe into elements heavier than helium.
Fortunately, that was enough to form the solid earth on
which we exist.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THEs

Earth and other ELEMENTS
planets were formed 4.5 billion years
ago from the debris of earlier stars.
There is comparatively little hydrogen and helium on
Earth , although these elements are predominant in the
universe as a whole.
The crust is the outer few miles of the solid surface plus
the region from which we can most easily acquire all our
natural resources.
Since the core of this planet is mostly iron and nickel,
these two elements are more plentiful for Earth as a
whole.
Figure 2.2a shows the relative abundances of the
elements present in Earths crust in percent by weight.

s
Fig. 2.2a The Distribution of Elements

Oxygen (O) - 45.2%

Silicon (Si) - 27.2%
Aluminum (Al) - 8%
Iron (Fe) - 5.8%
Calcium (Ca) - 5.06%
Magnesium (Mg) - 2.77%
Sodium (Na) - 2.32%
Potassium (K) - 1.68%
Titanium (Ti) - 0.86%
Hydrogen (H) - 0.14%
Manganese (Mn) - 0.10%
Phosphorus (P) - 0.10%
all other elements - 0.77%

s
The Elements of the Human Body
The 11 bulk elements
Oxygen (O)
64.6%
Carbon (C)
18.0%
Hydrogen (H)
10.0%
Nitrogen (N)
3.1%
Calcium (Ca)
1.9%
Phosphorus (P) 1.1%
Chlorine (Cl)
Potassium (K)
Sulfur (S)
1.2%
Sodium (Na)
Magnesium (Mg)
Trace elements
Iodine (I)
Iron (Fe)
Zinc (Zn)
Copper (Cu)
Manganese (Mn) 0.1%
Nickel (Ni)
Cobalt (Co)
Selenium (Se)
and others

THE SYMBOLS OF THE

ELEMENTS

An element can be conveniently identified by a symbol.

A symbol is usually the first one or two letters of the elements English or

Latin name.
When an element has a two-letter symbol, the first is capitalized but the
second is not.
SOME COMMON ELEMENTS
ELEMENT
Aluminum
Bromine
Calcium
Carbon
Chlorine
Chromium
Fluorine
Helium

SYMBOL

Al
Br
Ca
C
Cl
Cr
F
He
H

ELEMENT
Iodine
Magnesium
Nickel
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Phosphorus
Silicon
Sulfur

SYMBOL

I
Mg
Ni
N
O
P
Si
S
Zn

THE SYMBOLS OF THE s

The symbols of someELEMENTS
common elements are derived from their original
Latin names.

Elements with Symbols from Earlier or Alternate Names

ELEMENT
Antimony
Copper
Gold
Iron
Lead
Mercury
Potassium
Silver
Sodium
Tin

SYMBOL

FORMER LATIN NAME

Sb
Cu
Au
Fe
Pb
Hg
K
Ag
Na
Sn
W

Stibium
Cuprum
Aurum
Ferrum
Plumbum
Hydragyrum
Kalium
Argentum
Natrium
Stannum
Wolfram

2-2

THE COMPOSITION
OF LEMENTS:
ATOMIC THEORY

THE COMPOSITIONS OF
ELEMENTS
LOOKING AHEAD!

Our modern understanding of the particulate nature of matter

actually had its beginning over 2000 years ago.

A Greek philosopher named Democritus suggested that all
matter is like grains of sand on a beach.
In other words, he proposed that matter is composed of tiny
indivisible particles that he called atoms.
However, as recently as two centuries ago, the idea of
matter composed of atoms was not accepted.
Most knowledgeable scientists thought that a
sample of an element such as copper could be
divided (theoretically) into infinitely smaller pieces
without changing its nature.
In other words, they believed that matter was
Democritus
continuous.

EARLY GREEK THEORIES

Democritus

400 B.C. - Democritus thought matter

could not be divided indefinitely.

This led to the idea of atoms in a

void.
fire
earth

Aristotle

air

water
350 B.C - Aristotle modified an earlier
theory that matter was made of four
elements: earth, fire, water, air.
Aristotle was wrong. However, his
theory persisted for 2000 years.

THE ATOMIC
THEORY
In 1803, an English named John

Dalton (1766-1844) proposed a

theory of matter based on the
original thoughts of Democritus.
His idea are now known as atomic
theory.
The major conclusions of atomic
theory are as follows:
Matter is composed of small, indivisible

particles called atoms.

Atoms of the same elements are identical and have the same properties.
Chemical compounds are composed of atoms of different elements
combined in small whole-number ratios.
Chemical reactions are merely the rearrangement of atoms into the
different combinations.

THE ATOMIC THEORY

The atomic theory is now universally accepted as our

current view of matter.

Thus, we may define an atom as the smallest
fundamental particle of an element that has the
properties of that element.
Why are we so sure that Dalton was right?
We have overwhelming amount of indirect experimental

evidence
We now have direct proof :
A highly sophisticated instrument called the scanning tunneling

microscope (STM) has produced images of atoms of several

elements.

THE SIZE OF AN ATOM

When we look at a small piece of copper wire, it is

hard to imagine that it is not continuous.

This is because it is so difficult to comprehend the
small size of the atom.
Since the diameter of a typical atom is on the order of
0.00000001 cm (10-8 cm), it would take about 10
quadrillion atoms to appear as a tiny speck.
The piece of copper wire is like a brick wall: from a
distance it looks completely featureless, but up close
we notice that it is actually composed of closely
packed basic units.

2-3

THE COMPOSITION
OF THE ATOM

COMPOSITION OF THE ATOM

LOOKING AHEAD!
Just over 100 years ago, scientists perceived the

atom to be a hard, featureless sphere.

However, beginning in the late 1880s and continuing
today, the mysteries and complexities of the atom
have been slowly discovered and understood.
Ingenious experiments of brilliant scientists such as:
Thomson
Rutherford
Becquerel
Curie
Roentgen

contributed to the current model of the atom.

THE ELECTRON AND

ELECTROSTATIC
FORCES
ELECTRON

A relatively small particle

The first subatomic particle to be identified.
It has negative electrical charge (assigned a value of -1) and

common to the atoms of all elements. (J.J Thomson, 1897)

Its identification indicated that matter is electrical in nature
and that electrostatic forces are at work within the confines of
the atom.
ELECTROSTATIC FORCES
Consists of forces of attraction between unlike charges and
forces of repulsion between like charges.
Atoms themselves have no net electrical charge, so they
must contain positive charges that counterbalance the
negative charge of the electrons.

THOMSONS MODEL

He proposed a model
of the atom that is
sometimes called the
Plum Pudding
model.

Atoms were made

from a positively
charged substance
with negatively
charged electrons
scattered about, like
raisins in a pudding.

RUTHERFORDS NUCLEAR
MODEL

Took Thomsons Plum

Pudding Model and added
to it
Used the Gold Foil
Experiment to discover
the existence of:
An atomic Nucleus
Protons (in later experiments)

Gold Foil Experiment

Rutherford directed a
narrow beam of alpha
particles (+ charges) at a
thin piece of gold foil.

Based on observations from

other experiments involving
alpha particles, he predicted
that the (+) charges would
go through the foil

Results from Gold Foil

Experiment
Rutherford found that every
once and a while, a + particle
was deflected bounced back.
(about 1% of the time)
Why?
Because the + charge hit a
central mass of positive charge
and was repelled.

THE GOLD FOIL

EXPERIMENT

THE PARTICLES IN THE

NUCLEUS
Later experiments showed
that the nucleus is composed of

particles called nucleons.

2 types of nucleons:

Protons, have positive charge (+1), opposite to that of electron

Neutrons, do not carry a charge.

They have roughly the same mass, which is about 1 amu

(1.67 x 10-24 g)
It now appears that the proton and the neutron are themselves
composed of various combination of even more fundamental
particles called quarks.

THE ATOMIC PARTICLES

NAME

SYMBOL

ELECTRICAL
CHARGE

MASS
(amu)

MASS (g)

Electron

-1

0.000549

9.110 x 10-28

Proton

+1

1.00728

1.673 x 10-24

Neutron

1.00867

1.675 x 10-24

2-4

ATOMIC NUMBER,
MASS NUMBER,
AND
ATOMIC MASS

ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS

NUMBER
&
ISOTOPES
In Daltons original theory, he suggested that all

atoms of an element are identical.

But if we look at the number of atoms of most
elements, we find that this statement is not exactly
true.
For example:
Mass number (number of nucleons)
(29 protons and 34 neutrons)
63
29

(29 protons and 36 neutrons)

Cu

Atomic number (number of protons)

(29 protons)
ISOTOPIC NOTATION

65
29

Cu

ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS

NUMBER
& ISOTOPES
Mass number
(number of nucleons)
(29 protons and 36 neutrons)

(29 protons and 34 neutrons)

63
29

Cu

65
29

Cu

Atomic number (number of protons)

(29 protons)

ATOMIC NUMBER is the number of protons in the nucleus

(which is equal to the total positive charge)
MASS NUMBER is the total number of nucleons (protons
and neutrons)
ISOTOPE is an atom of a specific element with a specific
mass number .
Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but
different mass number.

ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS

NUMBER
&
ISOTOPES
For example:
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are
present in 90
38Sr ?
Answer:
number of protons = atomic no. = 38
number of neutrons =
mass no. - no. of protons 90 38 = 52
number of electrons = no. of protons= 38

ISOTOPIC MASS & ATOMIC

MASS
ISOTOPIC MASS is a more precise measure of

the mass of one isotope relative to another

It is determined by comparison to a standard, 12C,
which is defined as having a mass of exactly 12
atomic mass units.
Therefore, 1 atomic mass unit (amu) is a mass
of exactly 1/12 of the mass of 12C.
ATOMIC MASS of an element is obtained from the
weighted average of the atomic masses of all
isotopes present in nature.

ISOTOPIC MASS & ATOMIC

MASS
Example:

In nature, the element boron occurs as 19.9% 10B

and 80.1% 11B. If the isotopic mass of 10B is 10.013
and that of 11B is 11.009 amu, what is the atomic
mass of boron?
Solution:
10B 0.199 x 10.013 = 1.99 amu
11B 0.801 x 11.009 = 8.82 amu
atomic mass of boron = 10.81

2-5

MOLECULAR
COMPOUNDS

MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

LOOKING AHEAD!
Every element and compound has a unique set of

properties.
Properties describe the particular characteristics
or traits of a substance.
Elements and compounds can be referred to as
pure substances.
Pure substances have definite compositions and
definite, unchanging properties.

RECOGNIZING THE NAMES OFs

COMPOUNDS
The names of
the simplest compounds are usually

based on the elements from which they are

composed and most contain two words.
Carbon dioxide, sodium sulfite and silver nitrate all
refer to specific compounds.
Notice that the second words ends in ide, -ite or
ate.
A few compounds have three words, such as
sodium hydrogen carbonate.
A number of compounds have common names of
one word, such as water, ammonia, lye and
methane.

MOLECULES, MOLECULAR
s
COMPOUNDS &
BONDS
About threeCOVALENT
centuries ago, water
was thought to be
an element.
When scientists were able to decompose water into
hydrogen and oxygen, it became apparent that
water is a compound.
Just as the basic particles of most elements are
atoms, the basic particles of a particular type of
compound are known as molecules.
A molecule is formed by the chemical combination
of two or more atoms.
Molecules composed of different atoms are the
basic particles of molecular compounds.

MOLECULES, MOLECULAR
COMPOUNDS &
COVALENT BONDS

Covalent bond is a force that joins and holds the atoms in a

molecule together.
Water is an example of molecular
compound.
Each molecule of water is composed
of two atoms of hydrogen joined by
covalent bonds to one atom of oxygen.
Molecules can contain as few as two atoms or in the case of
the complex molecules on which life is based, millions of
atoms.

THE FORMULAS OF MOLECULAR s

COMPOUNDS
A compound is represented
by the symbols of the elements of which it
is composed.
This is called the FORMULA of the
compound.
The familiar formula for water is
therefore H2O.
What makes one molecular compound
different from another?
It is that each chemical compound has a unique formula or arrangement
of atoms in its molecules.
Example:
H2O2 hydrogen peroxide
C12H22O11 sucrose
C9H8O4 aspirin
NH3 ammoni
CH4 - methane

THE FORMULAS OF MOLECULAR s

COMPOUNDS
Sometimes two or more compounds may share the same
chemical formula.
In this case, their difference stems from the sequence of the
atoms within the molecule.
Example:
Ethyl alcohol and dimethyl ether
Formula: C2H6O

ethyl alcohol
H
|

H
|

HCCOH
|

dimethyl ether
H

HCOCH
|

MOLECULAR ELEMENTS

Each breath of fresh air that we inhale is primarily

just three elements:
Nitrogen (78%)
Oxygen (21%)
Argon (less than 1%)

Other elements exist as diatomic (two-atom)

molecule under normal temp. conditions:
Hydrogen
Fluorine
Chlorine
Bromine
iodine

MOLECULAR ELEMENTS

A form of elemental phosphorus consists of

molecules composed of four atoms.
A form of sulfur consists of molecules composed
of eight atoms.
Ozone is a second form of elemental oxygen
which is composed of three atoms of oxygen.
These molecules composed of two or more atoms
of the same element are referred to by formulas
such as:
I2 (iodine)
O2 (oxygen)
O3 (ozone)
P4 (phosphorus)

2-6

IONIC
COMPOUNDS

CATIONS AND ANIONS

When we scrape your stocking feet along a carpet

in a dry room, you often pick up a charge of static
electricity that discharges when you touch
something metallic, resulting in a unpleasant
shock.
Atoms can also achieve an electrostatic charge.
IONS are atoms or molecules having an
electrostatic charge.
Cations positively charged ions
Anions negatively charged ions

CATIONS AND ANIONS

Ordinary table salt is

a compound named
sodium chloride.

In sodium chloride
(NaCl):
Sodium exists as a cation with a single positive

charge
Chlorine exists as an anion with a single
negative charge

THE ORIGIN OF THE CHARGEs

ON
IONS

To understand why the Na+ cation has a positive charge,

we must look at its basic particles and how an atom of Na
differ from a Na+ cation.

A cation contains fewer electrons than the number of protons found

in a neutral atom.
An anion contains more electrons than there are protons in a
neutral atom.

In both cases, it is the ELECTRONS that are out of

balance, not the protons.
A +1 charge on a cation indicates that it has one less electron than

its number of protons (its atomic mass).

A +2 charge indicates that the cation has two fewer electrons than its
atomic number.

THE ORIGIN OF THE CHARGEs

ON
IONS

Example:

Na+ cation has 11 protons (atomic

number of Na) and 10 electrons

The +1 charge arises from this
imbalance:
[ (11p x +1) + (10e x -1) = +1 ]
An anion with a -1 charge has one
more electron than the atomic number
of the element.
A -2 charge indicates two more electrons than its atomic number.

More example:
S2- ion has 16 protons in its nucleus and 18 electrons.
The -2 charges arises from the two extra electrons
[ (16p x +1) + (18e x -1) = -2 ]

THE FORMULAS OF IONIC

COMPOUNDS

Since sodium cations and chlorine anions are oppositely

charged, the ions are held together by electrostatic forces
of attraction.
In figure below, the ions in sodium chloride are shown as
they would appear if sufficient magnification were possible.
Note that each cation (one of the smaller spheres) is
attached to more than one anion.
In fact, each ion is surrounded by six oppositely charged
ions.

THE FORMULAS OF IONIC

COMPOUNDS

Bonding in these compounds is much different from that of

the previously discussed molecular compounds, in which
atoms bond together to form discrete entities(molecules).
Compounds consisting of ions are known as ionic
compounds.
The electrostatic forces holding the ions together are known
as ionic bonds.

THE FORMULAS OF IONIC

COMPOUNDS

The ions in ionic compounds are locked tightly in their

positions by the strong electrostatic attractions.
This results in solid compounds that are almost all hard and
rigid.
They are the material of most rocks and minerals.

THE FORMULAS OF IONIC

COMPOUNDS

Figure on the right side shows

the formula of sodium chloride.
This is the simplest ratio of cations

Na+1

+ 1

Cl-

to anions present.
+1 +
-1
This ration reflects the fact that two
ions have equal and opposite charges
In any ionic compound, the anions and
cations exist together in a ration such
that the negative charges balances the positive charge:
[ +1 +1 (-1) =0 ]

= NaCl
=0

Notice that the charges are not displayed in the formula.

The simplest whole-number ratio of ions in an ionic
compound is referred to as a FORMULA UNIT.

THE FORMULAS OF IONIC

COMPOUNDS
Ions may also have
charges greater than 1.
In these cases, the ratio of ions in the formula may not be
simply one-to-one.
Calcium chloride is a compound composed of Ca2+ cations
and Cl- anions.
Two chlorine anions are needed to balance the +2 charge on the

calcium: [ +2 + (2x 1) = 0 ]

Thus the formula is:

+

Cl-

Ca2+

+
+2

CaCl2

Cl-

+ (2 x -1)

THE FORMULAS OF IONIC

COMPOUNDS
EXAMPLE:
What is the formula unit of an ionic compound formed
from the Al3+ cation and the S2- anion?

SOLUTION:
The least common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6:
2 x (+3) = +6
3 x (-2) = - 6
(+6) + (-6) = 0, a neutral compound.
It will take 2 Al3+ and 3 S2- to form an ionic compound.
The formula is written Al2S3 .

THE FORMULAS OF COMPOUNDS

s
CONTAINING
POLYATOMIC
IONSto each other
Groups of atoms
that are covalently bonded
may as a whole also be cations or anions.
They are known as polyatomic ions.
Example:
Nitrate anion (NO3-)
Perchlorate anion (ClO4-)
Ammonium cation (NH4+)

When more than one polyatomic ion is in a formula unit,

parentheses and a subscript