CHE 324

PROCESS PLANT OPERATIONS & MAINTENANCE

An Overview Of Facilities
Service Function &
Environmental Quality Act, 1974
Regulations
Malaysia has had environmentally-related legislation

since the early 1920s (table 4). But the legislation is

limited in scope and inadequate for handling complex
emerging environmental problems. So through EQA,
1974, a more comprehensive form of legislation and an
agency to control pollution was established.
EQA is an enabling piece of legislation for preventing,
abating and controlling pollution, and enhancing the
environment, or for other related purposes. Pollution, as
declared in EQA, includes the direct or indirect alteration
of any quality of the environment or any part of it by
means of a positive act or act of omission.
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Pollution is controlled through the mechanism of

licences issued by the Department of Environment.
The mode of control is by prescribing, by means of a
ministerial regulation, that licences are mandatory
for:
- The use and occupation of prescribed premises;
- Discharging or emitting wastes exceeding
acceptable conditions into the atmosphere, as
well as noise pollution, polluting or causing the
pollution of any soil or surface of any land;
- Emitting, discharging or depositing any wastes or
oil, in excess of acceptable conditions, into inland
waters or Malaysian waters.
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Environmental laws and

regulations

One of the three strategies embodied in

EQA, 1974, is for the regulation of pollution.
The other two strategies are for preventing
and abating any form of pollution. To bring
the law and other environmentally-related
laws into effect, the laws and regulations
listed below have been introduced and are
strictly enforced by the Department of
Environment.
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Occupational Safety and

Health Act 1994

The Department of Occupational Safety and Health

(DOSH), under the Ministry of Human Resources, has
been assigned the responsibility of administrating and
enforcing legislation related to occupational safety and
health (osh) to ensure that safety, health and welfare of
people at work as well as others are protected from
hazards resulting from occupational activities in the
various sectors which include manufacturing; mining
and quarrying; construction; agriculture, forestry and
fishing; utilities (gas, electricity, water and sanitary
services); transport, storage and communication;
wholesale and retail trades; hotels and restaurants;
finance, insurance, real estate and business services;
public services and statutory authorities.
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Chapter 2
Prime movers
Pumps
Steam turbines
Gas turbine

Pumps
Pump Application and Classification
Refineries and chemical plant use pumps to
move liquid.
Pumps can be classified as dynamic and
positive displacement.
Both classes are designed to transfer liquids,
but the way the transfer is accomplished is
different.
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Dynamic Pumps

Dynamic pumps accelerate liquids axially (in

a straight line) or centrifugally (in circles)
They are operated at high speeds to
generate large flow rate at low discharge
pressures.
Pressures moves the liquid through the
piping and equipment system.

Positive Displacement (PD)

Transfer liquids by using a rotary or

reciprocating motion that displaces liquid on
each rotation or stroke.
They are used in processes that require
specific amounts of fluid to be delivered.
They transfer specific amounts of fluid no
matter what the discharge pressure is,
whereas the amount of fluid transferred by
dynamic pumps is greatly affected by
discharge pressure.
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Rotary pumps deliver a specific amount of

fluid with each rotation of screws, gears,
vanes or similar elements.
Reciprocating pumps move fluids by drawing
them into a chamber on the intake stroke
and pushing them out of the chamber with a
piston, diaphragm or plunger on the
discharge stroke.

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Vertical

Horizontal
Centrifugal
Single- stage

Multistage
Dynamic

Axial

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Screw Pump
External Gear

Single Progressive
Cavity
Multiple

Internal Gear
Rotary
Sliding Vane
Positive
Displacement

Flexible vane
Lobe Pump

Reciprocating

Piston
Plunger
Diaphragm
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Steam Turbines/ engine

A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow.
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work.
A conventional steam electric power plant/power station converts fossil fuels coal, gas or oil - into electric energy. Fuel burned in the boiler releases heat, which
boils water and converts it into high-pressure superheated steam.
The steam enters a turbine where it expands and pushes against blades to turn
the generator shaft to create electric current. After the steam passes through the
turbine, condensers convert it to water, which is then returned by pumps to the
boiler to repeat the cycle.
Combustion gases exit through the stack.

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Steam Turbine
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A rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power plant

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Classification Of Steam
Turbines
1. Condensing

Exhaust steam flows into a heat exchanger called

surface condenser that cools and condenses
the steam.
The condensate is sent to the boiler, where it is
converted back to steam.
Operate at vacuum pressure
The most efficient type because they extract the
maximum amount of energy from the steam.

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Classification Of Steam
Turbines
2. Noncondensing
Exhaust gas is utilized in low- pressure
steams application.

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Classification Of Steam
Turbines
3. Reaction

Steam is discharged from a nozzle mounted

on the rotor.
Movement is a reactive response to the
release of steam from an internal source.

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Classification Of Steam
Turbines.
Turbines
4. Impulse
Steam from an external source acts on the
rotor to create movement.

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Operating principles

The primary operating principle of a turbine is to

convert steam energy into mechanical energy that
can be used to drive rotating equipment.
A steam turbine is a device (driver) that converts
kinetic energy (steam energy of movement) to
mechanical energy.
Steam turbines have a specially designed rotor
that rotates as steam strikes it.

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Operating principles

As high-pressure steam enters a turbine, it passes

through a device called a nozzle.
Nozzles restrict the flow and increase the velocity
of the steam.
The nozzle directs this high-velocity steam against
the blades of a paddle-wheel, causing it to rotate.
As the steam passes through alternate sets of
fixed and revolving blades, it constantly expands
as it moves along.
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Moving Blade
Impuls

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Operating principles

The rotating paddlewheel is attached to a

shaft, and the blading and shaft together
make up the rotor.
Impulse or reaction movement occurs as the
steam strikes the rotor, converting the steam
energy into mechanical energy.
The amount of steam energy needed to
perform useful work depends on the pressure
range through which the steam expands.
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Operating principles

The steam used to operate a steam turbine is

produced in a boiler.
Boilers produce steam that can enter a turbine at
temperature as high as 538oC (average 1 000 to 1
050oF) and pressure as high as 3 500 psi inlet and
200 psi outlet. (steam turbines can also run under
a vacuum.)
High pressure steam is admitted slowly into a
turbine to warm it up and remove condensate
(moisture produced by condensation)
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Operating principles

Steam turbines are used to drive the electric

generators in modern power plants.
Modern turbine technology includes 50 or more
stages linked along a horizontal shaft.
Each stage consists of a set of moving or
stationary blades.
The curved blades of each stage are designed
so that the spaces between the blades act as
nozzles and increase steam velocity.

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Operating principles

As the steam zigzags between the stationary

and moving blades, it begins to expand as
much as 1000 times its original volume.
Modern turbine design increases the size of
each stage, giving the turbine a conical
shape.
Figure 6.1 pg 137

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Impulse turbine & reactive

steam turbines

Have a blading design that causes rotation of

the blade- and shaft assembly, or rotor,
when high- velocity steam pushes on the
blades.
The kinetic steam source is external
Reactive movement occurs when steam
escapes from a fixed nozzle attached to the
rotor, propelling the rotor.
The kinetic steam source is internal.
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Basic Components of a
Steam turbine
Four grouping
Rotor
Fixed parts
Governing mechanism
Lubrication system

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Basic Components of a
Steam turbine
Rotor
The assembly consisting of the shaft and the
rotating blades.
Statically and dynamically balanced to
ensure smooth operation.

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Rotor

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Fixed parts
The principal stationary parts in a steam
turbine are the :

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

fixed blades
Throttle valve
Steamtight casing
Steam chest
Nozzle
Bearings
Rings
seals
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Fixed blades

Made of durable stainless steel that has been

rolled and drawn.
Half- moon shaped ring located in the lower
section of the turbine, sandwiched between
the moving blades.
When fixed and rotating blades are aligned in
the correct position, steam passages are
formed across the wheel of the turbine.

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Diaphragm

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Casing

Composed of a base and covering made of

carbon steel or turbine iron.
The base and the covering are designed to
form steamtight joints.

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Steam Chest

Houses the governor valve and steam

strainer ( a mechanical device that removes
impurities from steam)
Composed of carbon steel or iron and is
bolted to the lower casing.

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Nozzle

Constitute a precision instrument fabricated

from a solid block of high-tensile carbon
silicon steel that directs high-velocity steam
against the rotor.
Nozzle blocks are bolted to the steam chest.
Has overlapping exits that allow the steam
jets to converge before being directed against
the buckets of the rotor.

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Nozzle

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Bearing

Provide radial and axial support for the shaft

of a steam turbine.

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Steam Turbine Problems

Vibration
- vibration-sensing equipment is used to
monitor turbine performance.
-

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Advantages of steam
turbines

High efficiency at high speed.

Far fewer moving parts, hence potentially greater
reliability.
Conventional piston steam locomotives give a
varying, sinusoidal torque, making wheelslip much
more likely when starting.
The side rods and valve gear of conventional steam
locomotives create horizontal forces that cannot be
fully balanced without substantially increasing the
vertical forces on the track, known as hammer blow.
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Disadvantages of steam
turbines

High efficiency is ordinarily obtained only at high speed (though

some Swedish and UK locomotives were designed and built to
operate with an efficiency equal to or better than that of piston
engines under customary operating conditions). Gas turbine
locomotives had similar problems, together with a range of other
difficulties.
Peak efficiency can be reached only if the turbine exhausts into a
near vacuum, generated by a surface condenser. These devices
are heavy and cumbersome.
Turbines can rotate in only one direction. A reverse turbine must
also be fitted for a direct-drive steam turbine locomotive to be
able to move backwards.

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Task 2

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Gas Turbine

A gas turbine is a rotary machine, similar in principle

to a steam turbine.
It consists of three main components - a
compressor, a combustion chamber and a turbine
A gas turbine extracts energy from a flow of hot gas
produced by combustion of gas or fuel oil in a
stream of compressed air.
It has an upstream air compressor (radial or
axial flow) mechanically coupled to a downstream
turbine and a combustion chamber in between.
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Theory of operation

Gas turbines are described thermodynamically by

the Brayton cycle, in which air is compressed
isentropically, combustion occurs at constant
pressure, and expansion over the turbine occurs
isentropically back to the starting pressure.
The air after being compressed into the compressor
is heated either by directly burning fuel in it or by
burning fuel externally in a heat exchanger.
The heated air with or without products of
combustion is expanded in a turbine resulting in
work output, a substantial part, about two-thirds, of
which is used to drive the compressor. The rest,
about one-third, is available as useful work output.
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Energy is released when compressed air is mixed

with fuel and ignited in the combustor. The resulting
gases are directed over the turbine's blades,
spinning the turbine, and mechanically powering the
compressor. Finally, the gases are passed through a
nozzle, generating additional thrust by accelerating
the hot exhaust gases by expansion back to
atmospheric pressure.
Energy is extracted in the form of shaft power,
compressed air and thrust, in any combination, and
used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical
generators, and even tanks.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/turbine.htm
http://videos.howstuffworks.com/science

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