ECE 5317-6351

Microwave Engineering
Fall
2011

Prof. David R. Jackson

Dept. of ECE

Notes 1
Transmission Line
Theory
1

Waveguiding Structures
A waveguiding structure is one that carries
a signal (or power) from one point to
another.
There are three common types:
Transmission lines
Fiber-optic guides
Waveguides

Note: An alternative to waveguiding structures is wireless

transmission using antennas. (antenna are discussed in
ECE 5318.)
2

Transmission Line
Properties

Has two conductors running parallel

Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory)
Becomes lossy at high frequency
Can handle low or moderate amounts of power
Does not have signal distortion, unless there is loss
May or may not be immune to interference
Does not have Ez or Hz components of the fields (TEMz)

Coaxial cable (coax)

Twin lead
(shown connected to a 4:1
impedance-transforming
3
balun)

Transmission Line (cont.)

CAT 5 cable
(twisted pair)

The two wires of the transmission line are twisted to reduce

interference and radiation from discontinuities.
4

Transmission Line (cont.)

Transmission lines commonly met on printed-circuit boards

w

Microstrip

Stripline

h
Coplanar strips

Coplanar waveguide (CPW)

5

Transmission Line (cont.)

Transmission lines are commonly met on printed-circuit boards.

Microstrip line

A microwave integrated
circuit

Fiber-Optic Guide
Properties

Uses a dielectric rod

Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory)
Can be made very low loss
Has minimal signal distortion
Very immune to interference
Not suitable for high power
Has both Ez and Hz components of the fields

Fiber-Optic Guide (cont.)

Two types of fiber-optic guides:

1) Single-mode fiber
Carries a single mode, as with the mode on a
transmission line or waveguide. Requires the
fiber diameter to be small relative to a
wavelength.
2) Multi-mode fiber
Has a fiber diameter that is large relative to
a wavelength. It operates on the principle of
total internal reflection (critical angle effect).

Fiber-Optic Guide (cont.)

Higher index core region

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber

Waveguides
Properties
Has a single hollow metal pipe
Can propagate a signal only at high frequency: > c

The width must be at least one-half of a wavelength

Has signal distortion, even in the lossless case
Immune to interference
Can handle large amounts of power
Has low loss (compared with a transmission line)
Has either Ez or Hz component of the fields (TMz or TEz)

10
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveguide_(electromagnetism)

Transmission-Line Theory
Lumped circuits: resistors, capacitors, inductors
neglect time delays
(phase)
Distributed circuit elements: transmission lines
account for
propagation and time
delays (phase change)
We need transmission-line theory whenever
the length of a line is significant compared with
a wavelength.
11

Transmission Line
2 conductors

4 per-unit-length parameters:

C = capacitance/length [F/m]
L = inductance/length [H/m]
R = resistance/length [/m]
G = conductance/length [ /m or S/m]

z
12

Transmission Line (cont.)

i z, t
B

x x x

+++++++
----------

v z, t

z
i(z,t)

R z

Lz

i(z+z,t)
+

+
v(z,t)

Gz

Cz

v(z+z,t)
-

13

Transmission Line (cont.)

i(z,t)

Rz

Lz

i(z+z,t)
+

+
v(z,t)

Gz

Cz

v(z+z,t)
-

i ( z , t )
v( z , t ) v( z z , t ) i ( z , t ) Rz Lz
t
v( z z , t )
i ( z , t ) i ( z z , t ) v( z z , t ) G z C z
t
14

TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

Hence

v( z z , t ) v( z , t )
i ( z , t )
Ri ( z , t ) L
z
t
i ( z z , t ) i ( z , t )
v( z z , t )
Gv( z z , t ) C
z
t
Now let z 0:

v
i
Ri L
z
t
i
v
Gv C
z
t

Telegraphers
Equations

15

TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

To combine these, take the derivative of the first one with
respect to z:

v
i
i
R L
z
z
z t
i
i
R L
z
t z
v

R Gv C
t

v
v

L G C
t
t

Switch the
order of the
derivatives.

16

TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

v
v
v
v

R Gv C L G C
z
t
t
t

Hence, we have:

v
v
v
RG v ( RC LG ) LC
0
z
t
t
2

The same equation also holds for i.

17

TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

Time-Harmonic Waves:

v
v
v
RG v ( RC LG ) LC
0
z
t
t
2

dV
RG V ( RC LG ) jV LC ( )V 0
dz
2

18

TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

dV
RG V j ( RC LG )V LC V
dz
2

Note that

RG j ( RC LG ) LC ( R j L ) (G j C )
2

Z R j L
Y G jC

= series impedance/length
= parallel admittance/length

dV
( ZY )V
dz
2

Then we can write:

19

TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

Let

Solution:

dV
( )V
dz
2

ZY
2

Then

V ( z ) Ae Be
z

is called the "propagation constant."

Convention:

( R j L)(G jC )

1/ 2

principal square root

j
0, 0

z e j /2

attenuation contant
phase constant
20

TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

Forward travelling wave (a wave traveling in the positive
z direction):

V ( z ) V0 e z V0 e z e j z

v ( z , t ) Re V0 e z e j z e jt

Re V0 e j e z e j z e jt
V0 e z cos t z
t 0

The wave repeats when:

2
g

V e

Henc
e: 2

21

Phase Velocity
Track the velocity of a fixed point on the wave (a point of constant
phase), e.g., the crest.

vp (phase velocity)
z

v ( z , t ) V0 e z cos(t z )
22

Phase Velocity (cont.)

Se
t

Hence

t z constant
dz
0
dt
dz

dt

In expanded form:
v
p

Im ( R j L)(G jC )
23

1/ 2

Characteristic Impedance Z0
I+ (z)
+
V+(z)
-

A wave is traveling in the positive z

direction.

V ( z)
Z0
I ( z)

V ( z ) V0 e

I ( z ) I 0 e z

so

V0
Z0
I0

(Z0 is a number, not a function of z.)

24

Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)

Use Telegraphers Equation:

v
i
Ri L
z
t
so

Hence

dV
RI j LI
dz
ZI
z

V0 e

ZI 0 e

25

Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)

From this we have:

V0 Z Z
Z0
I0
Y

1/2

Using

Z R j L
Y G jC
We have

R j L
Z0

1/2

Note: The principal branch of the square root is chosen, so that Re (Z0) > 0.
26

General Case

(Waves in Both
Directions)
z
z

V z V0 e

V0 e

V e e

Note:

z j z

wave in +z
direction

V e e z e j z

wave in -z
direction

v z , t Re V z e jt

V0 e z cos t z

V0 e z cos t z
27

Backward-Traveling Wave
I - (z)
+
V -(z)
-

A wave is traveling in the negative z direction.

V ( z)
Z0

I ( z)

so

V ( z)
Z0

I ( z)

Note: The reference directions for voltage and current

are the same as for the forward wave.

28

General Case
I (z)
+
V (z)
-

Most general case:

A general superposition of forward and

backward traveling waves:

V ( z ) V0 e z V0 e z
1
V0 e z V0 e z
I ( z)
Z0

Note: The
reference
directions for
voltage and current
are the same for
forward and
backward waves.
29

Summary of Basic TL formulas

V z V0 e z V0 e z
V0 z V0 z
I z
e
e
Z0
Z0

j R j L G jC
1

R j L 2
Z0

guided wavelength g
1

2
g
m

phase velocity vp
vp
30

[m/s]

Lossless Case
R 0, G 0
j ( R j L)(G j C )

1/ 2

j LC
so

vp

0
LC

R j L
Z0

G jC

1/2

L
Z0
C

vp

1
LC

(real and indep. of freq.) (indep. of freq.)

31

Lossless Case
(cont.)
1
vp

LC

In the medium between the two conductors is

homogeneous (uniform) and is characterized by (, ),
then we have that
LC (proof given
later)
The speed of light in a dielectric
medium is

Hence, we have
that

cd

v p cd

The phase velocity does not depend on the frequency, and it is

always the speed of light (in the material).
32

Terminated Transmission Line

V z V0 e z V0 e z

Terminating impedance (load)

Ampl. of voltage wave

propagating in positive z
direction at z = 0.
Ampl. of voltage wave
propagating in negative z
direction at z = 0.

Where do we assign z = 0?
The usual choice is at the load.
Note: The length l measures distance from the load:l
33

Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

V z V e

z
0

z
0

V e

Terminating impedance (load)

What if we know
V and V @ z l

Can we use z = - l as
a reference plane?

V0 V 0 V l e l

V l V 0 e l

V0 V 0 V l e l
Hence

V z V l e z l V l e z l
34

Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

Terminating impedance (load)

Compare:

V z V 0 e z V 0 e z
V z V l e z ( l ) V l e z ( l )
Note: This is simply a change of reference plane, from z = 0
to z = -l.
35

Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

V z V0 e z V0 e z

Terminating impedance (load)

What is V(-l )?

V l V0 e l V0 e l
propagating
forwards

propagating
backwards

The current at z = - l is then

V0 l V0 l
I l
e
e
Z0
Z0

l distance away from load

36

Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

Total volt. at distance l

from the load

V l V0 e l V0 e l
Ampl. of volt. wave prop.
towards load, at the load
position (z = 0).

Similarly,

2 l
0
V0 e 1 e
V0

Ampl. of volt. wave prop.

L Load reflection coefficient
away from load, at the
load position (z = 0).
l Reflection coefficient at z = - l

V0 e l 1 L e 2 l
V0 l
I l
e 1 L e 2 l
Z0

37

Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

Z l

V l V0 e l 1 L e 2 l
V0 l
I l
e 1 L e 2 l
Z0
V l
1 L e 2 l
Z l
Z0
2 l
I l
1

Input impedance seen looking towards load

at z = -l .
38

Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

At the load (l = 0):

Z L Z0
L
Z L Z0

1 L
Z 0 Z0
ZL
1 L

Recall

1 L e 2 l
Z l Z 0
2 l
1

Thus,

Z L Z 0 2 l
1
e
Z L Z 0

Z l Z 0

Z L Z 0 2 l
1
e

Z
L
0

39

Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

Simplifying, we have

Z L Z 0 2 l
e
2 l

Z
Z

Z
e

0
L
0
L
0
L
Z
0
2 l

Z
e
Z L Z 0 2 l

L
0
L
0

1
e

Z L Z 0

Z l Z 0

Z L Z 0 e l Z L Z 0 e l

Z 0

Z 0

Z L Z 0 e l Z L Z 0 e l
Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l

Hence, we have

Z L Z 0 tanh l
Z l Z 0

Z 0 Z L tanh l

40

Terminated Lossless Transmission Line

j j
V l V0 e j l 1 L e 2 j l
I l

V j l
e 1 L e 2 j l
Z0

1 L e 2 j l
Z l Z 0
2 j l
1 Le
Z L jZ 0 tan l
Z l Z 0

jZ
tan

l

L
0
Note: tanh l tanh j l j tan l

Impedance is periodic
with period g/2
tan repeats when

l
2
l
g
l g / 2
41

Terminated Lossless Transmission Line

For the remainder of our transmission line discussion we will
assume that the transmission line is lossless.

Z l
V l V0 e j l 1 L e 2 j l
V0 j l
I l
e 1 L e 2 j l
Z0
V l
1 L e 2 j l
Z l
Z0
2 j l
I l
1

Z L jZ 0 tan l

jZ
tan

0
L

Z 0

Z L Z0
L
Z L Z0
2
g

vp

42

Matched Load

Z l

A Matched load: (ZL=Z0)

Z L Z0
L
0
Z L Z0
No reflection from the load

V l V0 e j l
V0 j l
I l
e
Z0

Z l Z 0
For any l

43

Short-Circuit Load
BShort circuit load: (ZL = 0)
L

0 Z0
1
0 Z0

Z l jZ 0 tan l

Note: l 2

l
g

Always imaginary!

Z l jX sc

X sc Z 0 tan l

S.C. can become an O.C.

with a g/4 trans. line
44

Using Transmission Lines to Synthesize Loads

This is very useful is microwave engineering.

A microwave filter constructed from

microstrip.
45

Example

Find the voltage at any point on the line.

Z L jZ 0 tan d
Zin Z d Z 0

Z 0 jZ L tan d

Z in
V d VTH

Z
TH
in
46

Example (cont.)
Note:

V l V e

j l

1 e
L

L
At l = d :

V d V e

j d

2 j l

1 e
L

j 2 d

Z L Z0
Z L Z0

Z in
VTH

Z
TH
in

Z in j d
1
V VTH
e

j 2 d
Z

Z
1

e
TH

in

Hence

Z in j d l 1 L e j 2 l
V l VTH
e

j 2 d
1 Le

Z m ZTH
47

Example (cont.)
1 L e j 2 d
Some algebra: Z in Z d Z 0
j 2 d
1

Z in

Z in ZTH

1 L e j 2 d
Z0
j 2 d
1 Le

1 L e j 2 d
Z0
ZTH
j 2 d
1

Z0 1 Le j 2 d

Z 0 1 L e j 2 d ZTH 1 L e j 2 d

Z0 1 L e j 2 d

ZTH Z 0 L e j 2 d Z 0 ZTH

1 L e j 2 d

Z0

Z
Z ZTH
0
TH
1 L e j 2 d 0

Z
0
TH

1 Le j 2 d

Z0

Z
Z Z 0
0
TH
1 L e j 2 d TH

Z
0
TH

48

Example (cont.)
Hence, we have

Z in
Z0
1 L e j 2 d

Z in ZTH Z 0 ZTH 1 S L e j 2 d
where

ZTH Z 0
ZTH Z 0

Therefore, we have the following alternative form for the result:

Z 0 j d l 1 L e j 2 l
V l VTH
e

j 2 d
Z

Z
1

e
TH
S L
0

49

Example (cont.)

Z 0 j d l 1 L e j 2 l
V l VTH
e

j 2 d
Z 0 ZTH
1 S Le
Voltage wave that would exist if there were no reflections from
the load (a semi-infinite transmission line or a matched load).
50

Example (cont.)

Wave-bounce method (illustrated for l = d ):

Z0
V d VTH

Z
TH
0

1 L e j 2 d L e j 2 d S

L e

j 2 d

e
S

j 2 d

e
L

j 2 d

e
S

51

j 2 d

Example (cont.)
1 Le j 2 d Le j 2 d S

Z0
V d VTH

Z 0 ZTH

L e

j 2 d

e
S

j 2 d

e
L

j 2 d

e
S

1 e j 2 d e j 2 d 2 K
L S
L S

Z0

Z 0 ZTH

j 2 d

L e j 2 d 1 L S e j 2 d L S e j 2 d K

V d VTH

Geometric series:

z
n0

1 z z2 K

1
,
1 z

z 1

z L S e j 2 d

52

Example (cont.)
Hence

j 2 d

Z0 1 L s e

V d VTH

1
j 2 d
Z 0 ZTH
Le

j 2 d
1

L s

or

Z0
1 L e j 2 d
V d VTH

j 2 d
Z

Z
1

e
TH
L s
0

This agrees with the previous result (setting l = d ).

Note: This is a very tedious method not recommended.
53

Time- Average Power Flow

At a distance l from the load:

1
P l R e V l I * l
2
V 2

1 0
2 l
2 l
* 2 *l
Re
e 1 Le 1 Le

2 Z 0*

If Z0 real (low-loss
transmission line)
2

1 V0
2
P l
e 2 l 1 L e 4 l
2 Z0

V l V0 e l 1 L e 2 l

V0 l
I l
e 1 L e 2 l
Z0

Note:
*

L e 2 l *L e 2 l
L e 2 l L e2 l
pure imaginary

54

Time- Average Power Flow

Low-loss line
2
0

1V
2
P d
e 2 l 1 L e 4 l
2 Z0

2
0

2
0

1V
1V
2 2 l
2 l

L e
*
*
2 Z
2 Z
1 4 20 4 3
1 4 04 2 4 4 3
power in forward wave

power in backward wave

Lossless line ( = 0)
2

V
1 0
2
P d
1 L
2 Z0

55

Quarter-Wave Transformer
Z L jZ 0T tan l
Z in Z 0T

jZ
tan

l
L
0T

g 2 g
l

4 g 4 2

jZ 0T

jZ

Z in Z 0T

so
2
Z 0T
Z in
ZL

Z0T

Z0

ZL

Zin

in 0

Z in Z 0

Z 02T
Z0
ZL
This requires ZL to be real.

Hence

Z 0T Z 0 Z L
56

1/2

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

V l V0 e j l 1 L e 2 j l

V0 e j l 1 L e jL e 2 j l

V l V0 1 L e jL e j 2 l

Vmax V0 1 L
Vmin V0 1 L

1+ L
V ( z)
V0

1- L

z / 2

z0

Vmax
VoltageStandingWaveRatio VSWR
Vmin
VSWR

1 L
1 L

57

Coaxial Cable

re we present a case study of one particular transmission line, the coaxial cabl

r ,

b
Find

C, L, G, R

For a TEMz mode, the shape of the fields is independent of frequency,

and hence we can perform the calculation using electrostatics and
magnetostatics.
We will assume no variation in the z direction, and take a length of
one meter in the z direction in order top calculate the per-unit-length
parameters.
58

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

h = 1 [m]
Find C (capacitance /
length)

Coaxial
cable
From Gausss law:

l 0
l 0
E

0 r

a
b

l0

-l0

V VAB E dr
A

E d
a

l 0
b
ln
2 0 r a
59

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

h = 1 [m]

Coaxial
cable

Hence

l 0 1
l 0

ln

0 r

Q
C
V

a
b

We then
have

l0
-l0

2 0 r
C
b
ln
a
60

[ F/m]

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

Find L (inductance /
length)

h = 1 [m]
I

From Amperes law:

Coaxial
cable

Note: We ignore internal inductance

here, and only look at the magnetic field
between the two conductors (accurate
for high frequency.

Magnetic flux:

I
0 r
2

I
I

center conductor

(1) B d
a

61

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

1 0 r

h = 1 [m]

0 r
a

Coaxial
cable

Hence

H d
a

0 r

1 b
0 r
ln
I
2 a

0 r
L
ln
2

[H/m]
62

I
d
2

I
b
ln
2 a

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

Observation:
2 0 r
C
b
ln
a

[ F/m]

0 r b
L
ln
2
a

[H/m]

LC 0 0 r r
This result actually holds for any transmission line.
63

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

L
For a lossless cable: Z 0
C
2 0 r
C
b
ln
a

0 r b
L
ln
2
a

[F/m]

Z 0 0
0

r 1
ln
r 2

b
[ ]
a

0
376.7303 []
0
64

[H/m]

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

h = 1 [m]
Find G (conductance /
length)

Coaxial
cable
From Gausss law:

l 0
l 0
E

0 r

a
b

l0

-l0

V VAB E dr
A

E d
a

l 0
b
ln
2 0 r a
65

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

a
b

J E
l0

I leak J

(1) 2 a

2 a E

-l0

We then
have

l 0
2 a

a
0 r

G
l 0
b
ln
2 0 r a

I leak
G
V

or

l 0
2 a

a
0 r

2
G
[S/m]
b
ln
a
66

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

Observation:
2
C
b
ln
a

[F/m]

0 r

2
G
[S/m]
b
ln
a

G C

This result actually holds for any transmission line.
67

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

As just
derived,

G C

To be more
general:

tan
C

G
tan
C

This is the loss tangent that would

arise from conductivity effects.

The loss tangent actually

arises from both conductivity
loss and polarization loss
(molecular friction loss),
ingeneral.
Note: It is the loss tangent that is usually
(approximately) constant for a material, over a
68
wide range of frequencies.

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

General expression for loss
tangent:

c j

Effective permittivity that accounts for conductivi

j j

c j c
Loss due to molecular friction Loss due to conductivity

c
tan

69

Coaxial Cable (cont.)

h = 1 [m]

Find

R (resistance / length)
R Ra Rb

Coaxial
cable

Rs = surface resistance of metal

b , rb

a , ra

Rsa

a
b

2 a

Ra Rsa

1
a a

2
0 ra a

2 b

Rb Rsb

Rsb

1
b b

2
0 rb b
70

General Transmission Line Formulas

(1)

(2)

(3)

L
Z 0lossless characteristic impedance of line (neglectingloss)
C

LC 0 0 r r
G
tan
C

R Ra Rb
(4)

Ri Rs 2
J sz (l ) dl

I Ci

Ci contour of conductor, i a, b

Equations (1) and (2) can be used to find L and C if we know

the material properties and the characteristic impedance of
the lossless line.
Equation (3) can be used to find G if we know the material
loss tangent.
Equation (4) can be used to find R
71
(discussed later).

General Transmission Line Formulas (cont.)

Al four per-unit-length parameters can be
found from

Z 0lossless , R

L Z 0lossless
C / Z 0lossless

G C tan
RR

72

Common Transmission Lines

Coax

lossless
0

r 1 b
ln []
r 2 a

r , r
a

1
1

R Rsa
Rsb

a
2

Twinlead

Z 0lossless

r
h
cosh 1 []
r
2a
h

2a

R Rs
a h 2

2a

h
a

r , r
73

Common Transmission Lines (cont.)

Microstri ( w / h 1)
p
reff f 1
reff 0
Z 0 f Z 0 0 eff

eff f

r
r

Z0 0

120

reff 0 w / h 1.393 0.667 ln w / h 1.444

w w

2h
1 ln t

t
h
74

Common Transmission Lines (cont.)

Microstri ( w / h 1)
p

reff f

eff
r

r (0)
eff

r (0)

1 4F

r 1 r 1

2
2

eff
r
1.5

1
r
4.6

1 12 h / w

t/h

w / h

F 4 r 1 0.5 1 0.868ln 1

t
h
75

Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory

At high frequency, discontinuity effects can become
important.
transmitted

incident
Bend
reflected

The simple TL model does not account for the bend.

ZTH
+
-

Z0

ZL
76

Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

At high frequency, radiation effects can become
important.

We want energy to travel from the generator to the load, without

radiating.

ZTH
+
-

Z0

ZL

When will radiation

occur?

77

Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

The coaxial cable is a

perfectly shielded system
there is never any radiation
at any frequency, or under
any circumstances.

r
z

a
b

The fields are confined to the

region between the two
conductors.
78

Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

The twin lead is an open type of
transmission line the fields extend out
to infinity.

The extended fields may

cause interference with
nearby objects. (This may
be improved by using
twisted pair.)

ing fields that extend to infinity is not the same thing as having radiation, howev
79

Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

The infinite twin lead will not radiate by itself, regardless of
how far apart the lines are.
1

E H* dS 0

Pt Re
S

reflected

incident
h

No attenuation on an infinite lossless line

The incident and reflected waves represent an exact
solution to Maxwells equations on the infinite line, at any
frequency.
80

Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

A discontinuity on the twin lead will cause radiation to occur.

Incident wave

Obstacle

pipe

h
Reflected wave

Note: Radiation
effects increase as
the frequency
increases.

Incident wave

Bend

h
Reflected wave

bend
81

Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

To reduce radiation effects of the twin lead at
discontinuities:
1) Reduce the separation distance h (keep h << ).

2) Twist the lines (twisted pair).

CAT 5 cable
(twisted pair)
82