FST 504:

TECHNOLOGY OF
MISCELLANEOUS FOOD
COMMODITY
3 Units
Section 2
Dr Mrs J.M. Babajide
Department of Food Science and Technology,
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta

Course requirements:
CAT: 30% (Test 20% & assignment
10%)
Exam: 70%
70% Class attendance compulsory

SUGAR AND
CONFECTIONERY
INTRODUCTION
Definition of sugar (sucrose) - form of
carbohydrate suitable as a sweetener
Major source of sugar e.g cane and beet
World production of sugar - The worlds highest
producer of sugar produce about 90 million
tones/year, 60% sugar cane and 40% from sugar
beet.
Sugar as an important confectionery ingredient -

Production of raw sugar

sugar cane
shredding
Squeezing under hydrolytic pressure
raw sucrose sugar

Sugar cane
Sugar beet
washing
slicing
diffusing
sucrose liquor
Sugar Beet
At this stage the liquor contain 13 14% sucrose.

Purification/Refinery of raw sugar

Raw sugar
Mixing (with syrup obtained from the latter stages)

concentrating

(under vacuum)
Centrifuging (at high speed of 1,200 rpm or more)

Sugar crystals
Washing

(with hot water thus causing re-dissolution of sugar)

Adding Lime milk /carbonation

Filtering (under pressure)
Decolourising (with active carbon)
Concentration to super-saturation level (using evaporator)
Refined sugar (80% solid)
crystals

Drying

Dried Sugar

Typical analyses of cane or beet

sugar

Purity (Sucrose)
Moisture
Reducing Sugar (as in

White

Brown

Sugar (%)

Sugar (%)

99.8

92.0

0.1

3.5

0.05

4.0

0.02

0.5

0.005

0.01

invert sugar)
Ash
Impurities

Physical properties of sucrose

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.

Temperatu
re
o
o
C
F
20
68
50
122
100 212

Solubili
ty
%
Solubility
67.1
72.4
84.1
SH
Specific heat (SH) (67% solution)
20
68
0.63
106 218 0.72
Equilibrium relative humidity
60%
Boiling point
67% solution boils at
105oC (225oF)
Optical rotation
+66.5o
Specific gravity (SG)
Temp
SG
for 67.1% solution
20
1.33

60
1.29
for 74% solution
20
1.37

60
1.33
Bulk density 47 -55lb/ft3 (varying according to package)

temp
Thread (gloss)
Thin strands
103oC
Large Thread (large gloss)
Stronger strand
104oC
Small pearl
form small droplets
105oC
Large pearl
form large droplets
106oC
Blow (scuffle)
bubbles set on syrup
110oC
Feather
form feathery hard strands
111oC
Small ball
syrup form soft ball
116oC
Large ball
syrup form hard ball
120oC
Large Crack
form thin sheet
129oC
Medium Crack
form slightly brittle sheet
132oC
Hard crack
rapidly formed sheet
143oC

PROPERTIES OF SUCROSE
SUGAR
1.Solubility of Sugar
Saturation concentration of sugar:- (at room
temperature a part of H2O will dissolve 2 parts
of sugar (67%)
Factors that determine concentration of sugar:temperature, rate of agitation, degree of under
saturation and inversely to the crystal size).
Rate of dissolution of sugar:- For example , in
preparing a saturated solution at room
temperature, the last few % of sugar will
dissolve very slowly except in the use of heat

 Super-saturated sugar solution:- (a

solution containing more sugar than the
saturation level), when heated and
allowed to cool to room temperature a
74% solution may be obtained.
Instability of super-saturated sugar:any vibration or ingress of solid
particles (which act as nuclei) may
result in rapid crystallization of excess
sugar.

 Addition of mixtures of sugars (fructose,

sobitol etc) can lead to higher dissolved solids
e.g. the inclusion of invert sugar in the
optimal ratio increases the solubility at 20oC
from 67.7% for sucrose alone to 75.1% for
the mixture.
The degree brix is the unit of measurement of
concentration of sugar solution and the
common instrument used is hydrometer
having Baume scale (% of sucrose by wt.) e.g
if 50g sugar is dissolved in 50g of H2O, it will
be written as 50% w/w.

2. Bulkiness property of sugar

It acts as a bulking agent (filler), a diluents
and carrier of trace ingredients like colourants,
flavours thereby improving their dispersion.
Sugar crystals improve the particulate flow
characteristics of mixture, an important
feature in a highly mechanized food industry.
Its particle size aids wetting and dispersion
when H2O is added.

 When mixed with fats, it enables the

incorporation of air into the mixture which
makes it important in generating the
lightens of cake.
It provides mouth feel in soft drinks at
relatively low concentration while at high
concentration, it gives the characteristics
e.g. in boiled sweets.

3. Relative Humidity of sugar

Sucrose sugar can tolerate to a wide range of
humidity.
However, it does have its
limitations in its tendency to cake or solidify
in its storage container.
Thus, sugar remains free flowing under
normal European climatic conditions. When
the relative humidity drops below 70%, the
syrup form crystals. When the R.H is over
70%, it gives rise to conditions which
encourage mould growth during storage.

4. Sugar Confectionery Texture

A

Brittle,
crisp,
Crunchy,
flaky

chewy,
fluffy,
hard,
light,
short,
Soft,
spongy,
Springy,
stiff,
Tender,
tough

chalky,
coarse,
crystalline
, lumpy,
powdery,
rough,
sandy, ,
smooth

Crumbly,
dough,
fibrous,
mushy,
pasty,
spongy,
Stringy

greasy,
dry
moist, oily
sticky ,
tacky
tready,
waxy,
wetty,

Texture variation can be achieved for confections

by one or more of the following procedures:
vary the moisture content
vary the content type and strength of gelling
agent
vary the sucrose-glucose syrup ratio
vary the sucrose-invert sugar solid ratio
vary the pH
alter the process temperature conditions
vary the milk protein content
seed the batch with fondant or icing sugar
change the required level of total sugars
alter processing conditions to vary the particle
size
alter the incorporated air content

FORMS/TYPES OF SUCROSE SUGAR

1.Granulated mineral water sugar
2.Granulated sugar
3.Industrial granulated
4.Cube sugar
5.Nibs
6.Caster
7.Icing sugar
8.Liquid sugar
9.Brown sugar
10. Mollases
11. Microcrystalline sugar

GLUCOSE SYRUP
Glucose syrup - key ingredient in the confectionery
industry.
It is a refined concentrate aqueous solution of D(+)-1glucose, maltose and other polymers of D-glucose
obtained by controlled partial hydrolysis of edible
starch.
According to Codex Alimetarius, Glucose syrup can be
defined as a purified concentration of aqueous solution
of nutritive saccharides obtained from starch.
Can be obtained from starchy foods such as corn,
cassava, potato etc.
The industrial production of glucose syrup consists of 2
basic processes:
1.Starch hydrolysis
2.Refining of the hydrolysate

 In acid hydrolysis, dextrose equivalent

(degree of hydrolysis) of 30-35DE could be
obtained which is still of higher quality
required by the food and confectionery
industry.
DE is the degree of hydrolysis of starch that
takes place and it is the total reducing
power i.e. in the acid hydrolysis of glucose
syrup, we have the composition of dextrose,
maltose, malto-triose, malto-tetrose, maltopentose, malto-hexose and higher sugars in
various percentages making a total of 100%
for each DE, as shown below:

Destrose Equivalent of sugars

Type
Maltose

Low
DE 26

%
Monosacchari
de-dextrose
8.0
Disaccharide
-maltose
44.7
Trisaccharides
7.5
Tetra-saccharides
3.3
Penta-ssacharides
1.3
Hexo-saccharide
1.5
Hepta-saccharides 4.5
High sugars
54.0

Low

Regular

Intermediate High

DE 38

DE 42

19.3

30.8

37.0

15.0
7.5

12.5

11.0
7.0

9.0

6.5

8.0

5.0

7.0
5.0

32.5

DE 55

14.3
11.8

5.6
24.0

13.2
10.0

DE 64

18.1

High

42

%
5.9
31.5

11.0
9.5

12.7
5.0

8.4

7.2

4.0

6.6

5.1

3.0

4.2
11.9

2.0
6.5

1.0
27.4

Function of Glucose syrup in confectionery

Type of Syrup
Property/functional use
Body agent
Browning reaction
Cohesiveness
Colour stabilization
Crystallisate control
Emulsion stabilizer
Fermentability
Flavour enhancement
Flavour transfer medium
Foam stabilizer
Freezing point depression
Humenctancy
Hygroscopicity
Increased vapour pressure
Nutritive value
Osmotic pressure
Preservation
Prevention of coarse ice crystals
Prevention of sucrose crystallisate
Sheen power
Solubility effect
Sweetness
*
Thickening agent
Viscosity
Key:

Low DE

High DE
*

*
*

*
*
*

*
*

*
*
*
*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*

*
*

BOILED SWEETS

High boiled sweets are sugar products

which are glossy in appearance. They
can be considered as sugar liquids with
very high viscosities.
The finished product of boiled sweet is a
super
cooled
liquid
at
ambient
temperature with a solid content of 97
98%.

 Although there is super saturation at

the solid state with respect to
sucrose, but because of the addition
of glucose syrup, the formulation
cannot crystallize.
Other ingredients that can be added
to boiled sweets are flavours, milk,
fruits, chocolate, colours etc.

Production of High Boiled Sweets (HBS)

There are 3 main production methods for HBS. They
are
Open pans
Vacuum cookers
Continuous cookers
Each of this require different ratio of sugar to glucose
syrup to give the best result.
Sucrose: glucose
Open pan
70:30 to 66.5:33.5
Vacuum cookers
65:35 to 50:50
Continuous cookers 60:40 to 45:55

 Approximate temperature of 156OC is

used during open pans.
Vacuum cooking can be as low as 110
129OC
Precautions during HBS production :
During
cooling,
prevent
seeding
(introduction of nuclei), this is because
a grain of sugar drop into the mass will
induce crystallisation
Ensure good doctoring
Stop stirring after attaining desired
temperature

Product types of boiled sweets

High boiled sweets manufacturing technology
ranges from lollipops, candies, cones, medicated
confectioneries, lettered rock, soft centred sweets,
butter boilings, laminated (crackened or honey
combed sweets to grained Edinburgh rock;
marshmallow, Nougat, butterscotch, candy etc.
Description of some Boiled sweets
E.G
Laminated or Honey comb sweet:
This is a multilayered sweets with a crunchy texture
made from many layers of cooked sugar having its
centre filled with honey, nut paste, peanuts or other
suitable fillings and finally wrapped in a thin
envelope of high boiled sweets or sugar.

Sweets

Candy cane

lollipop

Rockets

Marshmallow

Gums, Jellies and Pastilles:

Gums, Jellies and Pastilles constitute a

large class of confectionery which can be
manufactured with many variations.

They are comparatively low boiled and

contain about 20% moisture.
Obtained by the use of various types of
water binding gelling agents such as gum
Arabic, starch, gelatin, agar and pectin.

Tablets and Lozenges:

Tablets
are
made
by
compressing
powdered or granulated ingredients in a
confined space (die) until the particles
bond together.
They have very smooth surface and very
little amount of moisture.
Ingredients:
Base material (sucrose),
binders (gum) lubricants, starch (which
swells upon contact with water and breaks
up the tablet).

 Lozenges are made from icing sugar, mixed with

a binder, sheeted, but into shape and allowed to
dry.
When menthols/mints, vitamin C or other sore
throat medicines are added, they are called
medicated lozenges.
In effervescent tablets, citric acid and sodium
bicarbonate are included. Colours and flavours
can also be added.
Lozenges tend to have hard rough finishing while
compressed tablets have smooth shiny surfaces.

Chewing and Bubble gum:

Chewing gums are sticky candy to be chewed but
not swallowed. It is composed of mixed natural
(chicle-milky juice of the tropical sapodilla tree
Archras zapota of Central America) and synthetic
gums, resins together with various sugars and
flavouring materials (such as mints).
The difference between chewing gum and bubble
gum is the ability of Bubble gum to make
bubbles and stretch when blown. Bubble gum
contains higher levels of polymers or rubbers.
In sugar free or sugar less chewing gum, sorbitol,
mannitol, xylitol are used.

SOFT DRINK BEVERAGES

What is Soft Drink Beverage?

Soft drinks are non-alcoholic carbonated
or non-carbonated beverages usually
containing a sweetening agent, edible
acids and natural or artificial flavours.
Examples of Soft Drink
Soft drinks include, cola beverages, fruit
flavoured drinks, ginger ale, and root
beer, also include soda water, seltzer
water and tonic water.

History of Soft drink

The first attempt to manufacture carbonated
soft drinks were the result of a desire to
duplicate the naturally effervescent, mineralrich waters that flowed from the springs at
the well-known European spas.
John Pemberton invented caramel coloured
syrup in 1886, when diluted and carbonated,
this syrup is called coca-cola because it
originally contained cocaine from coco leaf
and rich in caffeine from the kolanut. This
premiere flavoured soft drink was first
patented in 1893.

 In 1984, in response to the public demand

for more healthful and less fattening foods
as follows 1. Soft drink manufactures began formulating
with natural juices.
2. Vitamin enriched soft drinks
3. Sugar, caffeine, sodium -free soft drinks also
became popular in the late twentieth
century.

PRODUCTION OF SOFT DRINK

Water

treatment

using
sand
filter
/activated
carbon
/
superchlorination and coagulation.

Carbonation

of treated water to
give the characteristic effervescence
(fizz and sparkle) soft drinks.

During carbonation,
carried out

Chilling

is

 Finished soft drinks

can be produced by
diluting a mixture of non-carbonated water and
flavoured sugar syrup with highly carbonated
water then

bottled

or syrup is measured directly with bottles then

filled with carbonated water injected under high
pressure.
The bottles are

on

the

capped

assembly

packed in
shipping.

line,

cartons

by another machine

inspected,
or

cases

ready

then
for

Soft Drink Packaging

Carbonated soft drinks are packaged for
sale in variety of containers such as glass
bottles, tin or aluminum cans and plastic
bottles.
Non-carbonated soft drinks can be
packaged not only in bottles and cans but
also in treated card board carton
(tetrapak) since they are not under
pressure.

Some special beverage categories are:

1.Non-carbonated soft drinks which are
produced with some ingredients except CO2
and techniques of carbonated soft drink but
not protected from spoilage.
They are
usually pasteurized in bulk or continuous
flash pasteurized either prior to filling or in
the bottle.

2.Powdered soft drinks are made by blending

flavouring materials such as dry acids,
gums, sweeteners and artificial colour.

3. Nutraceutical
beverages
are
drinks
formulated
with
special
functional
ingredients that promote some aspect of
health or reduce the risk of certain
diseases.

Nutritive Sweeteners used in beverages

Sweetener
AcesulfameK (sunette)

Sweetness
(Sucrose =
1)
130-200

Aspartame
180
(Nutrasweet)

Taste
Characteristics

Uses

Rapid
onset,
persistent
sidetastes
at
high
concentrations
Clean, similar to
sucrose, no bitter
after taste

Table
sugar,
dry
beverage
mixes,
chewing gum

Saccharin

200-700

Slow
onset
persistent
after
taste, bitter at high
concentrations

Sucralose
(Splenda)

600

Can withstand high

temperature

Table
sugar,
dry
beverage
,
chewing
gum,
beverage
confections,
fruit
spreads, toppings and
fillings
Soft drinks, juice, fruit
drink, other beverage,
table use sweeteners,
processed
fruits,
chewing
gum
and
confections,
gelatins
desserts, salad dressing,
baked goods.
Soft
drinks,
baked
goods, chewing gum,

PROJECT
Student will produce:
Sugar syrup with various
consistency
High boiled sweets of
various types