General Metabolism

Definitions
1. Electrolyte mineralssodium, chloride, and

potassium, which control and balance fluid flow in

and out of cells.
2. Major elementsmacrominerals with special
duties in the body (requirement > 100mg/day):
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, chloride,
and potassium.
3. Trace elementsmicrominerals needed in only
small amounts (requirement < 100mg/day); but
serving vital body functions: iron, iodine, copper,
manganese, zinc, cobalt, molybdenum, selenium,
fluoride.
4. Toxic minerals: aluminum, lead, cadmium,
mercury.

Importance
Minerals are essential for good nutrition.
Deficiencies in minerals lead to many

nutritionally controllable diseases.

Mineral

Best Food Source

Function

Deficiency
Symptoms
and
Diseases

Recommen
ded
Dietary
Allowance

Potassiu
m

Apricots, bananas,
dates, figs, nuts,
raisins, beans,
chickpeas, cress,
lentils

Provides
membrane
potential

Muscle
weakness

3500 mg

Sodium

Meat, cheese, cold

cuts, smoked fish,
table salt

Osmotic pressure None

Calcium

Milk, cheese,
sardines, caviar

Bone formation,
hormonal
function; blood
coagulation,
muscle
contraction

Chloride

Meat, cheese, cold

cuts, smoked fish,
table salt

Osmotic pressure None

1700-5100
mg

Balancing
calcium in diet

800-1200
mg

Phosphor Lentils, nuts, oats,

us
grain flours, cocoa,

2000-2400
mg

Muscle
800-1200
cramps;
mg
osteoporosis
; fragile
bones

Excess
causes

Mineral

Best Food Source

Function

Iron

Raisins, beans,
chickpeas, parsley,
smoked fish, liver,
kidney, spleen,
heart, clams, oyster

Oxidative
Anemia
phosphorylatio
n; hemoglobin

15 mg

Zinc

Yeast, soybeans,
nuts, corn, cheese,
meat, poultry

Cofactor in
enzymes;
insulin

Retarded
growth;
enlarged liver

12-15 mg

Copper

Oysters, sardines,
lamb, liver

Oxidative
enzymes
cofactor

Loss of hair
pigmentation;
anemia

1.5-3 mg

Mangane Nuts, fruits,

se
vegetables, wholegrain cereals

Chromiu
m

Deficiency
Symptoms and
Diseases

Bore formation Low serum

cholesterol
levels;
retarded
growth of hair
and nails

Meat, beer, whole

Glucose
wheat and rye flours metabolism

Glucose not
available to

Recommen
ded
Dietary
Allowance

2-5 mg

0.05-0.2
mg

Mineral

Best Food Source

Function

Deficiency
Symptoms
and
Diseases

Recommen
ded
Dietary
Allowance

Molybde
num

Liver, kidney,
spinach, beans,
peas

Protein synthesis

Retarded
growth

0.075-0.25
mg

Cobalt

Meat, dairy products Component of

vitamin B12

Pernicious
anemia

0.05 mg

Selenium Meat, seafood

Fat metabolism

Muscular
disorders

0.05-0.07
mg

Iodine

Seafood,
vegetables, meat

Thyroid glands

Goiter

150-170
g

Fluorine

Fluoridated water,
fluoridated
toothpaste

Enamel
formation

Tooth decay

1.5-4 mg

SODIUM
Sodium is the chief electrolyte which is found in large conc. In

extracellular fluid compartment.

Plasma conc. 140 mMol/L
Absorption: by sodium pump ( an enzyme, Na+ - K- ATPase) in
basal and lateral plasma membrane of intestinal and renal cells.
Functions: Fluid balance, Neuromuscular excitability, Acid base

balance, Maintenance of viscosity of blood, Role in resting

membrane potential, Role in Action Potential.

Clinical aspect:

a) Hypernatremia (high plasma sodium conc.).

Causes: Simple dehydration, Diabetes insipidus, Osmotic
loading, Excess sodium intake, Steroid therapy.
b) Hiponatremia: (low plasma sodium conc.)
Causes: Diuretic medication, Excessive sweating, Kidney
diseases, Congestive heart failure, Gastrointestinal loss.

POTASSIUM
Potassium is the major intracellular cation, mainly distributed

in blood, plasma, muscle and nerve tissues.

Plasma conc. 20mg/dl

Functions: influences the muscular activity, involved in acid-

base balance, Role in cardiac function, cofactor, involved in

neuromuscular irritability and nerve conduction process.

Clinical aspect:
a) Hyperkalemia:

Causes: Anuria, Tissue damage, Violent muscle

contraction, Addisons disease, Diabetes mellitus.
b) Hypokalemia:
Causes: Loss of K+ in GI secretions, Loss of K+ in urine,
Loss of extracellular potassium into the intracellular space,
Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis, Renal tubular acidosis.

CHLORINE
Is taken in diet as sodium chlorine.
Distribution: blood, plasma, cells,

muscles
Functions: Production of HCl in the gastric

juice.
Plasma levels of chlorine vary with and to
great extent depend on the plasma conc. of
Na and HCO3-

CALCIUM
Calcium is an important mineral mainly found in bone and teeth.
Plasma conc. 9-11mg/dl
Absorption: Simple diffusion and an active transport (Ca++

pump)

Functions: Calcification of bones and teeth, Roles in blood

coagulation, neuromuscular transmission, excitability of nerves,

muscle contraction, hormone action, and permeability of gap
junctions.

Clinical aspect:
a) Hypercalcaemia:

Causes: Primary hyperparathyroidism, Malignancy,

Granulomatous diseases, Overdosage of vitamines A and D, Drugs
(thiazide diuretics),
b) Hypocalcaemia
Causes: Hypoalbuminaemia, Hypoparathyroidism, Renal diseases
and renal failure, Neonatal hypocalcaemia,

PHOSPHORUS
Phosphate is the constituent of bone and teeth.
Functions: Energy transfer, Acid-base balance, Enzyme

action, Constituents of phospholipids, nucleotides,

lipoproteins, phosphoproteins.
Clinical aspect:
Ca + PO4 Primary hyperparathyroidism
Ca + PO4
Malignancy tumor deposits in bone, post
dialysis in renal failure.
Ca + PO4
Hypoparathyroidism
Ca + PO4
Vit-D eficiency
a) Hyperphosphataemia
Causes: Increased release from cells (diabetes mellitus,
starvation), from bone (malignancy, renal failure), growth
hormone.
b) Hypophosphataemia
Causes: decreased intake (malabsorption, vomiting),
increased excretion ( diuretics,)

IRON
Iron is the one of the most essential trace elements in the

body.
2 categories: Essential iron ( heme proteins, cytochromes,
iron requiring enzymes); storage iron ( ferritin, haemosiderin)
Iron requirement: adult male (10mg/day), adult female (20
mg/day).
Clinical aspect:
a) Iron deficiency anaemia (Hb , serum ferritin )
Causes: Pregnancy, lactation, menstruation, decreased
intake, chronic diseases (chronic aspirin ingestion, peptic
ulcers, rheumatoid arthritis,)
b) Iron overload
Causes: Excessive absorption, parental iron therapy,
repeated transfusions,

COPPER
Copper is found in muscles, bones and liver.
Functions: Roles in enzyme action, in Fe

metabolism, maturation of elastin, bone and

myelin sheath of nerves, and haemocyanin.
Deficiency manifestations:

Loss of weight, bone disorder, anaemia, hair

grey,...
Inherited disorders: Wilsons disease (Cu
retention), Menkes disease (Cu)

Menkes disease showing symptoms of the sparse, steel colored

"kinky hair" and paleness

MAGNESIUM
Magnesium is the fourth most abundant and

important cation in humans, distributed in bones

and soft tissues.
Functions: Role in enzyme action, neuromuscular
irritability, constituent of bone and teeth.
Clinical aspect:
A) Hypermagnaesemia

Causes: diabetes mellitus, acute renal failure,

hypothyroidism,
B) Hypomagnaesemia

Causes: Malabsorption, Hyperthyroidism,

diuretics,chronic alcoholism,

FLUORINE
Distribution: blood, bones, teeth.
Functions: Roles in tooth development and

dental health, bone development.

Fluorosis: Excess of fluoride in water or diet

or its inhalation is harmful.

Drug: Fluorex, Zymafluor put on Toy.
Architex, Fluocalcic, Osteofluor,
Rhumafluor.

ZINC
Distribution: skin, prostate, bones, teeth,

kidneys, muscles, heart, pancreas, spleen,

brain, lungs.

Functions: Roles in enzyme action (300

enzymes require zinc), vit A metabolism, insulin

secretion, growth and reproduction, wound
healing, and biosynthesis of mononucleotides.

Clinical aspect:
In diabetes mellitus, leukaemia, hepatic

diseases (Zn), malignancies (liver Zn)

MANGANESE
Distribution: mainly in kidneys and liver.
Functions: Roles in enzyme actions, bone

formation, carbohydrate and fat

metabolism, proteoglycan synthesis.
Manganese toxicity: inhalation poisoning

produces psychotic symptoms.

CHROMIUM
Widely distributed throughout the body.
Functions: role in carbohydrate, lipid and

protein metabolism.
Serum chromium levels decrease during

pregnancy and acute infection.

Chronic occupational exposure to chromate is

associated with increased risk of lung cancer.

NICKEL
Functions: Roles in enzyme action, growth

and reproduction.

Clinical aspect:

() in cirrhosis liver, chronic uraemia

() in acute myocardial infarction, severe
burns.
Toxicity:

Prolonged exposure results in respiratory

tract neoplasia and dermatitis.

COBALT
Is constituent of vit B12
Distribution: mainly in liver.
Functions: Roles in formation of cobamide

enzyme, cofactor, and bone marrow

function.

MOLYBDENUM
Distribution: bones, liver and kidneys.
Functions: Role in enzyme action, relation

with copper utilization.

Presence of small amounts of Molybdenum

help in the utilization of copper.

SELENIUM
Selenium was found to prevent liver cell necrosis.
Biological forms: selenium analogues of S-

containing amino acid.

Distribution: mainly in liver, kidneys and fingernails.
Functions: component of Glutathione peroxidase,
sparing effect on vit E.
Toxicity: garlicky breath caused by exhalation of
dimethyl selenide in electronics, glass and paint
industries.
Selenium deficiency: Liver cell necrosis, pancreatic
degeneration, congestive cardiac failure.