Political Ideologies

Heywood, Chapter 3
Magstadt, Chapter 2

Why study ideologies?

Intelligent decisions can only take place
when clear aims and goals have been set.
Before the mass energy of society can be
effectively converted into collective effort,
there must be a consensus on where we
want to go.
Political literacy then requires that we know
our ideologies well; that is, we know how to
think about the public good.

The public good

The public good is equated with the public
interest (i.e., common goals that serve the
publics welfare).
Here the development of political culture
can be seen, as how political orientations
eventually translate into strong political
sentiments.
When these sentiments are arranged into a
system of ideas, they become ideologies.

Ideology
An ideology is a more or less coherent set
of ideas that provide a basis for
organized political action.
All ideologies therefore:
Offer an account of the existing order in
the form of a world view;
Provide a model of a desired future, or a
vision of the Good Society;
Outline how political change can and
should be brought about.

Perceptions of ideology
At a fundamental level, ideologies resemble
political philosophies.
At an operative level, they take the form of
broad political movements.

Every nation ridicules other nations, and all are

right.
- Arthur Schopenhauer

Ideologies and the public

good
When political orientations become more
rigid beliefs, and are adopted into a closed
and coherent system of ideas, they cease to
be part of the general political culture; they
then become ideologies.
It is important to remember, however, that
the particular meaning of ideological labels
are not the same in every part of the world.
For example, conservatism in the US is not
the same in other states.

The left and the right

Left-wing and right-wing ideologies are the
two most prominent classifications for this
system of beliefs. The only other worthy
classification is whether they are pro or anti
government.
The concept of the left and right originated
in the European parliamentary practice of
seating parties that favor social change to
the left of the presiding officer, and those
who oppose such change to the right.

Anti-government ideologies:
Anarchism
Pro-government movements are not
actually considered as movements,
because having a government is the norm
in the first place.
Anti-government ideologies are more
worthy of analysis, as they are in fact
existing and are based on various
principles.
Anarchism Political authority in all its
forms, especially that of the state, is
unnecessary and evil.

A patriot must always be ready

to defend his country against its own government
-Edward Abbey

Anti-government ideologies:
Liberalism/Libertarianism
Liberalism Although not strictly antigovernment, liberalists espouse a
perception of the state as being a
necessary evil.
This is because they value individual
freedom above all else.
From its origins as a political doctrine
against absolutism or feudalism, it gradually
became a political ideology that aims to
champion personal opportunity and free
choice.

Elements of Liberalism
Individualism A belief in the supreme
importance of the human individual. Human
beings are seen primarily as individuals and
not as part of any group.
Freedom The freedom of the individual is
the most important value.
Reason The world can best be understood
in a rational way, that is, through relying on
the ability of individuals to make wise
judgments on their own behalf.

Elements of Liberalism
Equality Individuals are born equal. They
have equal rights, and are entitled to equal
opportunities. This is not the same as social
equality, however.
Toleration Each individual should be
allowed to express himself, and each view
should be respected.
Consent Social relationships should
always be based on consent or willful
agreement.
Constitutionalism Government, being a
necessary evil, should be limited.

Liberalist traditions

Classical An extreme form of individualism. The

state is viewed with great disdain and governance
is seen as an unwanted intervention.
Government, even in its best state, is but a necessary evil;
in its worst state, an intolerable one.
-Thomas Paine

Modern Characterized by a more sympathetic

attitude towards the state, and a less stringent
adherence to laissez-faire capitalism.
A party of order or stability, and a party of progress or reform, are both
necessary elements of a healthy state of political life.
-John Stuart Mill

Right-wing ideologies:
Conservatism
First conceptualized during the late 18th and
early 19th century, conservatism arose as a
reaction to the wave of radical economic
and political change that resulted from the
French Revolution.
It was a political doctrine that sought to
defend the traditional social order.
At first, it came out as a strictly autocratic
and reactionary doctrine, unwilling to
accept any kind of reform.

The most radical revolutionary will become a conservative

the day after the revolution.
-Hannah Arendt

Right-wing ideologies:
Conservatism
Later on, a more flexible form of
conservatism developed in western
countries, characterized by a belief in
change as a tool for preservation.
Various catch phrases were used to promote
the idea of using reform as an instrument
for preserving social order.
During the late 19th up to the early 20th
century, however, conservatives were still
mostly seen as enemies of radical reform.

A state without some means of change

is without the means for its own conservation
-Edmund Burke

Elements of Conservatism
Tradition The desire to preserve social
order is a result of the appreciation for the
values of tradition, which is seen as a mode
of promoting stability and security.
Pragmatism While human rationality
exists, it is limited; it cannot successfully
handle reality on its own. A principle of
practicality is therefore in order.
Human imperfection Humans are
dependent and security-seeking creatures,
prone to corruption and disorder.

Elements of Conservatism

Organicism Society is an organic whole, a

living entity that is more than a collection of
individual parts.
Hierarchy Varying degrees of social status is
an inevitable element of community life;
inequality is a result, but not necessarily
conflict.
Authority Freedom must coexist with
responsibility, which is enforced by authority.
Property Property ownership is seen as a
virtue by reason of gratitude to past
generations.
Liberal institutions straightaway cease from being liberal

Right-wing ideologies:
Royalism/Monarchism
Royalists or Monarchists are characterized
by their strong support for central authority,
often manifested in the form of a monarch.
They hold the crown in the highest regard
and defend it against revolutionary
demands for democratic reform.
The popularity of Royalism has dwindled in
the last few centuries.
However, many Middle-Eastern countries
are still predominantly royalist, as well as
some African countries.

Right-wing ideologies:
Fascism
The ideology of choice for the extreme right
in the later centuries, fascism can be traced
back to the late 19th century, but was
shaped into a strong ideological force after
WWI.
It is an anticapitalist, antiliberal, antiindividual, anticommunist form of right-wing
ideology.
Ultranationalistic tendencies, growing from
the principle of strength through unity,
gives fascism its distinctive appeal.

By the skillful and sustained use of propaganda, one can make a people see
even heaven as hell or an extremely wretched life as paradise.

Forms of Fascism

Italian Fascism An extreme form of statism,

unquestioning respect and absolute obedience
towards a totalitarian state was demanded of
people.
Everything for the state; nothing against the sate;
nothing outside the state.
-Gentile

German Nazism Based on the theory of

Aryanism and a belief in a superior race, Nazism
was an extreme form of racism aimed at
eradicating inferior people.
Anyone who sees and paints a sky green and fields blue
ought to be sterilized.
-Adolf Hitler

Right-wing ideologies:
Capitalism

The most prevalent ideology in the first world,

mainly due to its effective economic policies.
Capitalism is focused on the all-important role
that the free market plays in the development
of society.
As an economic theory, it stresses the role of
market forces, as a political ideology, it
opposes government intervention that serves
to limit the influence of these forces.
Mere parsimony is not economy Expense, and great
expense, may be an essential part of true economy.
-Edmund Burke

Left-wing ideologies: Socialism

As a political creed in the early 19th century,

socialism developed as a reaction to the
emergence of industrial capitalism.
In its earliest forms, it tended to have a
fundamentalist and revolutionary character,
one bent on the abolition of capitalism (and its
replacement by collectivism).
Collectivism holds that the public good is best
served by common ownership and
administration of the means of production.
We who are liberal and progressive know that the poor are
our equals in every sense except of that of being equal to
us.
-Lionel Trilling

Left-wing ideologies:
Socialism
This development led to the division of
socialism into two rival camps in the 20th
century.
The more revolutionary socialists were
focused on the abolition of capitalism
and eventually developed into communism.
The reformist socialists, who believed in
constitutional government, embraced
what came to be known as social
democracy.

Elements of Socialism
Community Human beings are social
creatures linked by a common humanity.
Human behavior is best explained by social
factors.
Fraternity Humans are bound together
by a sense of comradeship, which favors
cooperation over competition.
Social equality The central value of
socialism. Human beings identify with each
other because they are all equal in needs.

The liberals can understand everything

but people who dont understand them.
-Lenny Bruce

Elements of Socialism
Need Proceeding from a highly moral
standard, socialists believe that material
benefits are better distributed on the basis
of need, not merit.
Social class Division of society into
classes is inevitable, which also always
results in the oppression of certain classes.
Common ownership Goods are owned in
common by society in order to better serve
the common good; private ownership
promotes selfishness and division.

Left-wing ideologies:
Marxism

Starting as a theoretical system developed by

Karl Marx, Marxism evolved into a global force
which has influenced many societies in many
ways.
Marxs philosophy, in his view, has been honed
to a point that it has achieved the status of a
science, due largely to its materialist view of
history.
It was after Marxs death, however, that
Marxism was truly able to reach a wider
audience, and spark greater economic and
political change.
The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various
ways: the point is to change it.

Elements of Marxism

Historical materialism Social and

historical development can be explained in
terms of economic factors.
Dialectical materialism The dialectic (a
process of interaction between competing
forces) fused with a materialist view. This
implies that change is brought about by the
competition for the means of production.
Alienation Workers are alienated from the
product of their labor (and ultimately,
themselves).

Elements of Marxism

Surplus value The dominance of the

bourgeoisie allows them to exploit the proletariat,
making them work for less to bring about a
surplus value.
Class struggle the existence of private
property breeds division between classes, which
eventually leads to struggle.
Proletarian revolution Class consciousness
brings about a revolution where the proletariat
seizes control of the means of production.
Communism After the state has withered
away, society will be truly communist and wealth
will be owned by all.

Left-wing ideologies: Orthodox

Communism
Marxism in practice is linked to the
experience of Soviet communism, and
ultimately to the work of the first two
leaders, Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin.
Their ideas were less appreciated in print
and were more evident in their actions.
Lenin led the Bolshevik revolution in 1917
and removed the Czarist rule forever.
Stalin took charge of the Soviet Union in
1937 and shaped it into a world power.

Left-wing ideologies: Orthodox

Communism
Lenin believed that the proletariat may be
too preoccupied with improving their lot
that they forget their destiny of
overthrowing capitalism. He thus
promoted his idea of a vanguard party
that protects and champions the cause of
the working man.
Stalin, on the other hand, converted the
Soviet Union into a personal dictatorship
through a successful campaign which
eradicated all opposition in the
Motherland.

A proletarian dictatorship is never proletarian.

Left-wing ideologies: Social

Democracy
This ideology stands for a balance between
two diametrically opposed views: that of
liberalism and socialism.
Social democracy believes in a balance
between the market and the state,
between the individual and the
community.
Capitalism is accepted as a reliable
mechanism for generating wealth, while the
state is used as the means for distributing
that wealth in a socialist way.

Left-wing ideologies: Social

Democracy
The concept of the welfare state is
embraced by social democracy, as well as
the noble idea of social justice.
In economic terms, this meant a support for
Keynesian principles instead of the strictly
laissez-faire system of liberalism.
The development of this ideology, however,
has been halted by the unquestionable
downfall of communism, as well as the
pervasiveness of globalization.