Gastrointestinal system

Overview
Digestion of nutrients
Absorption of
nutrients and water
Principles of GI
regulation
GI secretion and
regulation
GI motility and
regulation

GI organization
Composed of the GI
tract, a tube running
from the esophagus
to the rectum
Accessory organs are
emptying secretions
into the tract.

Liver

Liver
Hepatocytes
Are liver cells
Adjust circulating levels of nutrients
Through selective absorption and secretion

In a liver lobule form a series of irregular plates

arranged like wheel spokes
Many Kupffer cells (stellate reticuloendothelial cells)
are located in sinusoidal lining
As blood flows through sinusoids
Hepatocytes absorb solutes from plasma
And secrete materials such as plasma proteins

Liver

Liver
Roles of the liver:
- Secretes bile
- Processes nutrients
- Remove wastes
from the body
(including old RBCs)
- Detoxify
- Secretes hormones

Liver Function
The Physiology of the Liver
1. Metabolic regulation
2. Hematological regulation
3. Bile production

Liver Function

Metabolic Regulation
The liver regulates:
1. Composition of circulating blood
2. Nutrient metabolism (carbohydrate, lipid & amino
acid)
3. Waste product removal
4. Vitamin Storage (A, D, E & K)
5. Nutrient storage (iron)
6. Drug inactivation

Liver Function
Composition of Circulating Blood
All blood leaving absorptive surfaces of digestive tract
Enters hepatic portal system
Flows into the liver

Liver cells extract nutrients or toxins from blood

Before they reach systemic circulation through hepatic veins

Liver removes and stores excess nutrients

Corrects nutrient deficiencies by mobilizing stored reserves
or performing synthetic activities

Liver Function
Hematological Regulation
Largest blood reservoir in the body

Receives 25% of cardiac output

Functions of Hematological Regulation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Phagocytosis and antigen presentation

Synthesis of plasma proteins
Removal of circulating hormones
Removal of antibodies
Removal or storage of toxins
Synthesis and secretion of bile

Liver Function
The Functions of Bile
Dietary lipids are not water soluble
Mechanical processing in stomach creates large
drops containing lipids
Pancreatic lipase is not lipid soluble
Interacts only at surface of lipid droplet

Bile salts break droplets apart (emulsification)

Increases surface area exposed to enzymatic attack
Creates tiny emulsion droplets coated with bile salts

Liver (bile)

Bile is secreted by the liver

hepatocytes
Bile composition: water, mucus,
bile salts (emulsify lipids), bile
pigments (biliverdin and bilirubin),
cholesterol,
The bile salts are reabsorbed back
to the liver for reuse by the
enterohepatic circulation

Pancreas
Lies posterior to stomach
From duodenum toward
spleen

Is bound to posterior wall of

abdominal cavity
Is wrapped in thin,
connective tissue capsule
Functions of the Pancreas
1. Endocrine cells of the
pancreatic islets:

Secrete insulin and

glucagon into bloodstream

2. Exocrine cells:

Acinar cells and epithelial

cells of duct system
secrete pancreatic juice

Pancreas
Pancreatic Enzymes
Pancreatic alpha-amylase
A carbohydrase
Breaks down starches
Similar to salivary amylase

Pancreatic lipase
Breaks down complex lipids
Releases products (e.g., fatty
acids) that are easily
absorbed

Pancreatic Enzymes
Nucleases
Break down nucleic acids

Proteolytic enzymes
Break certain proteins apart
Proteases break large protein
complexes
Peptidases break small
peptides into amino acids
70% of all pancreatic enzyme
production
Secreted as inactive
proenzymes
Activated after reaching small
intestine

Pancreas

- Trypsinogen trypsin
(enterokinase from duodenum).
- Chymotrypsinogen and
carboxypeptidase
chymotrypsin and active
carboxypeptidase).
Step 1 of protein digestion
- Pancreatic amylase Step 1
carbohydrate digestion
-

Pancreatic lipase step 1 lipid

digestion

- Bicarbonates ions from the

pancreatic juice help neutralize the
acidity of the chyme.

Figure 20.10

Absorptive state

Post-absorptive state

GI secretion and regulation

Need to regulate GI function to

changing states (after or
before meals..)
Sensors: 3 different receptors:
- mechanoreceptors: monitor
state of distention
- chemoreceptors monitor
concentrations of substances
in the lumen
- osmoreceptors monitor
osmolarity of lumen contents
Integrating centers: CNS and
enteric NS
Effectors: endocrine, exocrine
cells, smooth muscles

Coordination of Secretion &

Absorption

Control pathways

Both hormonal and neural

Short pathways: involves automatic regulation within the enteric
system itself
Long pathways: involves the CNS (somatic and autonomic)
Three phases: cephalic, gastric and intestinal phases

Gastric phase
Stimuli: presence of
food in the stomach
(both distention and
nutrients)
Stimulation of the
parasympathetic NS
and secretion of
gastrin (hormone)
Response: increased
motility and juice
secretion