Showing Causal

Relationships

Getting Beyond
Because, So and
Therefore
Margi Wald
UC Berkeley
mwald@berkeley.edu

What students tend to do

Fossil fuels are harmful to our environment
because they increase global warming and they
are not renewable.
Fossil fuels are harmful to our environment, so
scientists are working to find and develop
alternative energy sources.
Eventually, supplies of fossil fuels will be
depleted. Therefore, scientists are working to
find and develop alternative energy sources.

Not surprising
Most textbooks cover the following items:
Sometimes because of / due to + NP
but little practice crafting the NP.

What corpus research suggests

Hinkel, 2004:

Cause-clauses (because + S + V) not as common

in professional academic writing as clauses of
condition, time and concession
Relatively frequent in student academic writing
Possibly because they are common in
conversational registers

(p. 246, citing Leach et al., 2001)

What corpus research suggests 2

Flowerdew (1998) uncovered the following distinctions (among others)
between expert and learner texts for cause/reason and result/effect
relations:
Frequent use of logical connectors (because, therefore) in learner
corpus (LC) compared to use in expert text.
Smaller number of verbs in LC used to express cause, and always
in the finite form (lead to, cause), whereas the expert texts used a
wider range of verbs and used ing result phrases (resulting in X).
Expert texts included a large number of nominalizations, especially
with verbs that show cause/effect: Other major impacts are
occurring from ozone layer depletion.

What we learn from systemic

functional linguistics
Christie (2002), Schleppegrell (2004) among others list
abstraction as a feature of advanced academic literacy,
which often emerges during secondary schooling.
Students move from process clauses
(often used in speech):

The cilia can move together like whips...

to abstract phrases:
The whiplike movement of the cilia...
(example based on Fang & Schleppegrell, 2008)

What we learn from systemic

functional linguistics 2
Processes:

The soldiers attacked the town.

They removed the town treasures.

Condensing two SV clauses into one:

The soldiers attack on the town led to
the removal of the treasures.
(Christie, 2002, p. 46-7)

Aside #1

OK, already I see some eye-rolling.

Caveat: Too much packing of information

into sentences can lead to heavy, hard-todecode sentences.

In class, I always discuss the need to

balance this density with clarity.

What students want

Vocabulary development
Cheat sheets: lists of words, phrases,
structures

An instructors conclusion

Many resident and international ESL

students do not necessarily engage in
enough reading, noticing, and production
tasks to have control of or even access to
the structures and vocabulary needed to
craft abstractions and causal relations.

Action
A subset of exercises on cause/effect or
reason/result that focus on prepositional
connectors, verbs, and abstractions.
Aside #2
Exercises decontextualized

Building blocks
Followed up with exercises that help students choose
among different structures to achieve specific
purposes in longer passages of text

Sequencing

Before working on these exercises:

Resources for investigating what it means to
know a word (Nation, 1990)
Known-New Contract

After working on these exercises:

other relationships
cohesion
balancing density and clarity

Getting Ready
1. Think about a problem, issue, or debate in your field of study or in any
class you are currently taking. For example, perhaps one issue might be
current policies and debates around immigration. Or about creating
greener buildings or cars. Or finding the most efficient or effective model
for a company or a product for a company. Or about health problems in
particular locations or for particular populations.
Write at least two pages of text, but please dont take more than one hour
to plan and write. We will revise this piece together.
Establish the problem, issue, or debate and its context.
Discuss the problem/issue/debate and reasons for it. What causes the
debate or problem?
Discuss possible solutions or the most optimal solution. Focus on the
justification for and effects of the solution.
2. Find a published text in your field: problem, issue, debate.

Sample
There is much debate surrounding the use of nuclear
energy. Nuclear power plants emit relatively low amounts
of carbon dioxide (CO2). Given the low emissions of
green house gases, the creation of nuclear power
contributes very little to global warming. Also, one power
plant can generate a high amount of electrical energy. As
a result of this high yield, nuclear energy is considered
efficient and profitable. However, any people reject
nuclear energy as an option because of safety concerns.
First, nuclear waste can be extremely dangerous and
must be carefully stored over many years, resulting in
high costs. Also, accidents in nuclear power plants can
lead to serious consequences for human and natural life.
On account of these potentially devastating outcomes,
many people question the viability of nuclear energy as
an alternative to fossil fuels.

Sample: Highlighted
There is much debate surrounding the use of nuclear energy.
Nuclear power plants emit relatively low amounts of carbon
dioxide (CO2). Given the low emissions of green house
gases, the creation of nuclear power contributes very little
to global warming. Also, one power plant can generate a
high amount of electrical energy. As a result of this high
yield, nuclear energy is considered efficient and profitable.
However, any people reject nuclear energy as an option
because of safety concerns. First, nuclear waste can be
extremely dangerous and must be carefully stored over many
years, resulting in high costs. Also, accidents in nuclear
power plants can lead to serious consequences for human
and natural life. On account of these potentially
devastating outcomes, many people question the viability
of nuclear energy as an alternative to fossil fuels.

Sample: Analyzed
Connector + NP
Given the low emissions of green house gases,
As a result of this high yield,
On account of these potentially devastating outcomes,
because of safety concerns
Verbs
contributes
Nouns
Consequences

can lead to

outcomes

-ing phrase
resulting in high costs.

can generate

Repackaging Using
Connector + NP

Look at the sets of sentences below.

For each pair of sentences, [bracket] the connector that
creates a relationship.
Underline the structure that follows the connector.
Be ready to discuss the difference between the structures
used after the connectors in each set.

First one is done as a group:

1. A. Scientists are working to find and develop alternative
energy sources [because] supplies of fossil fuels will
eventually be depleted.
B. Scientists are working to find and develop alternative
energy sources [because of] the eventual depletion of fossil
fuels.

Connector + NP: Task 1

2. A. Class was canceled yesterday since the instructor was ill.
B. Class was canceled yesterday due to instructor illness.
3. A. As they had a close relationship with the arrested man, they were asked to testify
in court.
B. On account of their close relationship with the arrested man, they were asked to
testify in court.
4. A. The CEO supported the failed initiative. Therefore, he lost support of the board.
B. The CEO lost support of the board on account of his support for the failed
initiative.
5. A. Given that there are many reasons to support the use of nuclear energy, many
people believe we should increase funding in this area.
B. Given the many reasons to support the use of nuclear energy, many people
believe we should increase funding in this area.

Task 1 Follow-up

As we see in the examples above, all the

connectors in Sentence As are followed by
subjects and verbs.

In contrast, the connectors in Sentence Bs

are followed by abstract noun phrases:

noun forms of verbs (deplete

depletion) or adjectives (ill illness)
plus additional information.

Connector Chart w/ Examples

as a result of

Low-income families are struggling to put food on the table as

result of sharp increases in food prices.

because of

Because of recent concerns about food safety, the Food and

Drug Administration is considering new guidelines for meatpacking plants.

due to /
owing to

The company was able to hire additional employees due to

phenomenal sales during the first quarter.

given

Given the need for professional nurses, Jenna decided to

attend a nursing program after college.

on account of The recent college graduate got a relatively high-paying job on

account of his strong educational and research experience.
thanks to
(often positive)

Thanks to declines in unemployment, consumer confidence

has increased.

How & why writers make these

transformations

Using abstract nouns allows writers to reduce the

number of TO BE forms by changing adjectives into
nouns.

A. Class was canceled yesterday

[because] the instructor was ill.
conn
Subj
V

B. Class was canceled yesterday

[due to] instructor illness.
conn
N

How & why writers make these

transformations 2

Another way to reduce TO BE forms is to cut there

is / there are.
A. [Given that] there are many reasons to
conn
Subj V
support the use of nuclear energy, many people
believe we should increase funding in this area.
B. [Given] the many reasons to support the use
conn
N
of nuclear energy, many people believe
we should increase funding in this area.

How & why writers make these

transformations 3

Using connectors with abstract noun phrases can also

reduce the number of weaker verbs like TO HAVE needed
to form a clause.
A. [As] they had a close relationship with the arrested
conn Subj V
man, they were asked to testify in court.
B. [On account of] their close relationship with the
conn
N
arrested man, they were asked to testify in court.

Possessives in NPs
A. As they had a close relationship with the arrested
man, they were asked to testify in court.
B. On account of their close relationship with the
arrested man, they were asked to testify in court.

The subject in the as-clause in sentence A (they) becomes

a possessive (their) in sentence B.
Why? In the second sentence, the word is working
together with a noun (relationship), not a verb (had).
Thus, we need an adjective form (they --> their).
If the subject is a noun form (governor), it would change
to a possessive (governors).

Connectors + NP: Task 2

In the sentences provided, you will find logical connectors followed
by clauses (subjects + verbs). Transform the information in the
clause into an abstract noun phrase. Be sure to make any other
necessary transformations. A connector has been provided.
1 A. Because he was so talented in music, he received a
scholarship for college.
B. Thanks to
2 A. Given that the organization has a strong track record, their
proposal for additional funding was viewed positively.
B. Given

How & why writers make these

transformations 4

Using connectors with abstract nouns also allows writers to pack

sentences with information: to take an entire sentence, reduce it to a
noun phrase and place the reduced form inside another sentence.
This reduction often involves changing a verb form into a noun form:
deplete --> depletion

A. Scientists are working to find and develop alternative energy sources.

Supplies of fossil fuels will eventually be depleted.
Subj
V
B. Scientists are working to find and develop alternative energy sources
[because of] the eventual depletion of fossil fuels.
conn
N

Adverb --> Adjective in NPs

A. Supplies of fossil fuels will eventually be depleted.

B. because of the eventual depletion of fossil fuels.
The adverb (eventually) in the second sentence of part A
becomes an adjective (eventual) in sentence B. Why?
In the second sentence, the word is working together
with a noun (depletion), not a verb (deplete).
Thus, we need an adjective form (eventually -->
eventual).

How & why writers make these

transformations 5

Writers must sometimes make changes to the word order

when combining two sentences into one using abstract noun
phrases.
In sentence B, notice how the writer has changed the order of
information from the order in the first clause in A.
A. Because the percentage of jobs that require a college
degree has increased dramatically, the number of
students who attend college in the US has also increased.
B. Given the dramatic increase in the percentage of jobs
that require a college degree, the number of students who
attend college in the US has also increased.

Connector + NP: Task 3

In the sentences provided, you will find logical connectors followed
by clauses (subjects + verbs). Transform the information in the
clause into an abstract noun phrase. Be sure to make any other
necessary transformations. A connector has been provided
1 A. Because programs serving poor families have succeeded, people
have better access to heath care, affordable housing, and job
training programs.
B. Due to
2 A. Because the governor opposed the initiative, it could not garner
enough public support to pass.
B. Because of

Noun + Preposition combos

Many verbs and nouns collocate with prepositions:
I am interested in X / My interest in X
Sometimes, while the verb does not take a preposition,
the noun does.

X affects Y
X has an effect on Y
We discussed X
Our discussion of/about X
X influences Y
X has an influence on Y
I lack money
My lack of money
I oppose the legislation
My opposition to the legislation.

More vocabulary development

Word forms / families
Synonyms of nouns created from
adjectives and verbs

Repackaging Using Verbs

Because the telephone was invented, there were

many new opportunities for enhanced
communication.
Invent --> invention
There were --> deleted
The invention of the telephone created new
opportunities for enhanced communication.

(Schleppegrell, 2004)

Verbs: Task 1
With a partner, you have 15 minutes to amass a list of verbs
that show cause and effect use the reading and writing
you brought to class, online resources and each other for
help. Be sure to check for prepositions, etc.

Cause:
This problem is caused by ____.
This problem originates (in/from/with) ____.
Effect:
This factor causes the problem.
This factor produces the problem.

Verbs: Task 1 Results

account for
affect
arouse
attribute X to
block
bring about
cause
contribute to
create
derive from
develop
enable
evoke
follow from

force
form
generate
give rise to
hamper
impede
increase [T]
induce
influence
interfere with
lead to
leave
make

motivate
occur
originate
in/with/from
prevent
perpetuate
play a role in
produce
promote
prompt
provoke
raise
reduce

render
restrain
results in (result)
results from
(reason)
slow
spark
stimulate
stem from
trigger
yield
is attributed to
is blamed for
is responsible for

Verbs: Task 2

Put a + in the blank next to all of the verbs in the list

whose meanings you are familiar with and which you
use in your own writing.
Put a next to those words whose meanings you
are familiar with but which you may only rarely use.
Put a - in the blank next to words you are less
familiar with.
The words with a or - will represent those whose
meanings you should look up in online concordancers
and learner and collocations dictionaries.

Resources: Dictionaries

Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/
Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary
http://www.oup.com/elt/catalogue/teachersites/
oald7/lookup?cc=global

Resources: Collocations

Oxford Collocations Dictionary

LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations
(Heinle/Cengage)
BBI Dictionary of English Word Combinations
(John Benjamins, new edition due out 12/09)
Building Academic Vocabulary (U. Michigan Press)

Resources: Concordancers

Corpus of Contemporary American English

http://www.americancorpus.org/

Collins Concordancer
http://www.collins.co.uk/Corpus/CorpusSearch.aspx

Compleat Lexical Tutor Concordancer

http://www.lextutor.ca/concordancers/concord_e.html

Verbs: Task 2 Sample Results

Render

Cambridge:
verb [T] FORMAL [+ adjective]
to cause someone or something to be in a particular state:
His rudeness rendered me speechless.
New technology has rendered my old computer
obsolete.
COCA
He learned that it was a fast-acting sedative that would
render a person unconscious within seconds.

Verbs: More Task 2 Results

Cambridge

Trigger

verb [T] (means + noun)

to cause something bad to start:

Some people find that certain foods trigger their

headaches.

COCA

Long-term stress responses exacerbate asthma, and

hyperventilation can trigger a panic attack.

Verbs: Task 3

More pair or group work:

Which verbs introduce reasons / causes and which

introduce results / effects?

Which verbs fit under these categories?

block or minimize a possible effect
indicate the cause of a negative effect
make someone have a particular feeling
be one of the causes of something

Verbs: Task 4
Paraphrase the ideas in sentence (a) by choosing one of the three verbs given to fill in the blank. Use the
correct verb tense.
1. a. The mudslides in the Malibu hills happened because of the heavy rains.
b. The heavy rains _______________ mudslides in the Malibu hills.
impede
produce
occur
2. a. The continued heavy rains made it harder for the rescue crews to help people.
b. The continued heavy rains ____________________ the efforts of the rescue crews.
cause develop
hamper
3. a. The state senate criticized the governors proposal. The result of the criticism was that the
governor got angry.
b. The criticism ________________________ an angry response from the governor.
follow from increase
provoke
4. a. My grandmothers frugality is the result of having grown up during the Great Depression.
b. My grandmothers frugality ___________________ having grown up during the Great
Depression.
induce lead to
stem from

Verbs: Task 5
In using reason/result verbs, you need to pay attention to the grammar of the verbs.
Some verbs cannot be followed directly by a noun object: they need a preposition after them.
You also need to be careful that you dont flipflop an idea by using a reason verb instead of
a result verb. For example: The rains caused the mudslides; not the rains resulted from the
mudslides. Also, be careful to use an active verb not a passive be + verb form when needed
and vice versa. Correct the errors in each of the following sentences, adding prepositions or
word endings, changing from passive form to active, correcting word forms or rewriting the
sentence as needed.
1. A desire for change played a big role the voting decisions of many Americans.
2. The candidacy of Barack Obama was generated much interest around the world.
3. A great deal of interest generated around the world by the candidacy of
of Barack Obama.
4. Patricias success derived a lot of hard work and a little bit of luck.
5. The heavy rains were responsible the mudslides.
6. My interest in ancient history really sparked the history course I took.
7. His severe headache interfered his ability to do well on the exam.
8. His rather poor performance can partly be attribute his severe headache.

Student Samples

Several months ago, the price of oil skyrocketed to nearly 150

dollars/barrel, triggering the discussion of renewable energy. public
outcries for renewable energy.
The combustion of these traditional resources emits a great deal of
carbon monoxide, leading to a serious problem -- the greenhouse
effect.
Owing to the lower price of raw material stemming from the recession
of the world economy, we must immediately start to create an
infrastructure to generate power.
As a result of peoples increased concerns about environmentalism,
we have seen a sharp increase in the installation of wind turbines.
Due to inefficiency in both energy production and cost, some
economists doubt whether this boom will eventually be found
economically sound.

Thats it for now.

More coming soon.

References

Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman grammar of spoken and written English. London: Longman.

Center for Independent Language Learning. Cause and effect. Howloon, HK: The English Language Centre of the Hong Kong Polytechnic
University. Available at http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/exercises/cause&effect.htm

Christie, F. (2002). The development of abstraction in adolescence in subject English. In M. C. Colombi & M. Schleppegrell (Eds.) Developing
advanced literacy in first and second languages: Meaning with power. Mahwah, NJ: LEA.

Flowerdew, L. (1998). Integrating expert and interlanguage computer corpora findings on causality: Discoveries for teachers and students .
English for Specific Purposes, 17, 4. 329-345.

Gillett, A. (2009). Rhetorical functions in academic writing: Cause and effect. Using English for academic purposes: A guide for students in
higher education. Available at http://www.uefap.com/writing/function/causeff.htm.

Hinkel , E. (2004). Teaching academic ESL writing: Practical techniques in vocabulary and grammar. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Leech, G., Rayson, P. & Wilson, A. (2001). Word frequencies in written and spoken English. London: Longman.

Schleppegrell, M. J. (2004). The language of schooling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

Schleppegrell, M.J. & Colombi, M.C. (Eds.). (2002). Developing advanced literacy in first and second languages: Meaning with power. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Zwier, L.J. (2002). Building academic vocabulary. Ann Arbor. MI: University of Michigan Press.

Zwier, L.J. & Bennett, G. (2006). Teaching a Lexis-Based Academic Writing Course. Ann Arbor. MI: University of Michigan Press.