Chapter 6

Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.1 Types Of Nutrition
Learning Outcomes
State the types of nutrition

Explain autotrophic nutrition
Explain heterotrophic nutrition
Classify organisms according to the types
of nutrition
Types of Nutrition
Nutrition is the entire process by which
organisms obtain energy from food, for
growth, maintenance and repair of
damaged tissues.
The substances that are required for the
nourishment of an organism are called
nutrients.
Living organisms can be divided into two
main groups based on their nutritional
habits : autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Types Of Nutrition
Nutrition
Autotrophs
(autos: self;
trophos : feed)
Heterotrophs
(heteros: other)
1) Autotrophic nutrition
Autotrophs (autos: self; trophos: feed) are
organisms which practice autotrophic
nutrition.
Autotrophs synthesise complex organic
compounds from raw, simple inorganic
substances, such as air and water, by
using light or chemical energy.
Autotrophs manufacture their own food,
either by photosynthesis or by
chemosynthesis.
1) Autotrophic nutrition
a) Photosynthesis
(photo: light) is the process in which green
plants, called photoautotrophs, produce
organic molecules from carbon dioxide and
water using sunlight as a source of energy.
b) Chemosynthesis
(chemo : chemical) is the process in which
chemoautotrophs synthesise organic
compounds by oxidising inorganic
substances such as hydrogen sulphide and
ammonia.
Examples of autotrophs
Photoautotrophs - Trees
Chemoautotrophs- Bacteria
2) Heterotrophic nutrition
Heterotrophs (hetero: other) are organisms
that cannot synthesise their own
nutrients but must obtain the nutrients
from other organisms.
Heterotrophic nutrition is a type of nutrition in
which an organism obtains energy through the
intake and digestion of organic
substances, usually plant and animal tissues.
Heterotrophs may practise holozoic
nutrition, saprophytism or parasitism.
a) Holozoic nutrition
A type of nutrition which the
organisms feed by ingesting solid
organic matter which is
subsequently digested and absorbed
into their bodies.
Some examples are humans,
herbivores, carnivores and some
carnivorous plants such as
pitcher plants and Venus flytraps.
Examples of
heterotrophs
Holozoic nutrition - Carnivore
arnivorous plants (Holozoic nutritiontcher plants
b) Saprophytism
A type of nutrition which the organisms,
called saprophytes, feed on dead and
decaying organic matter.
Examples are bacteria and fungi which
digest their food externally before
absorbing the nutrients into their bodies.
Saprophytes-Fungi
c) Parasitism
Is a close association in which
an organism, the parasite,
obtains nutrients by living on
(ectoparasite) or in the
body (endoparasite) of
another living organism, the
host.
The parasite absorbs readily
digested food from its host.
Examples of parasites include
fleas and lice, various
bacteria, fungi and the
worms which infest the
human intestinal tract.
ParasitesLice
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Types Of Nutrition
Nutrition
Photosynthesis
Autotrophs
Process of synthesis
of food by using light
energy
Chemosynthesis
Process of synthesis
of food by using
chemical energy
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Types Of Nutrition
Nutrition
Heterotrophs
Holozoic
Saprophytism
Hunts and eat

other organisms.
Absorbs nutrient
from dead and
decaying organic
matter.
Paratism
Absorb nutrient
from
living
hosts.
Ectoparasites
and
endoparasites.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.2 Balanced Diet
Learning Outcomes
State the necessity for a balanced diet
explain the factors affecting the daily energy
requirement of the human body
Determine the energy value and nutrient content
in food samples
Explain the functions and sources of vitamins and
minerals in diet to maintain health
Explain the functions and sources of roughage or
dietary fibre in a diet
Explain the functions of water in the body
Justify the selection of an appropriate balanced
diet for a target group
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Balanced Diet
Balanced Diet
Contains
Contains correct
correct proportions
proportions of
of all
all classes
classes of
of
food
food according
according to
to the
theneeds
needsof
of body.
body.
For various metabolic reactions.
The Necessity
for a
Balanced Diet
Source of energy.
For growth and repair

damaged body tissue.
of
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Balanced Diet
Daily Energy
Requirement
Energy value is quantity of heat
released from the combustion of 1
gram of food.
During respiration, the energy is

released in an oxidation process,
which is similar to the
combustion (burning) of food.
When the food is burnt, it
releases energy, mainly in the
form of heat
The assumption made is that
respiration releases the same
amount of energy as combustion
does.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Balanced Diet
Daily Energy
Requirement
Unit of energy value =

joule per gram (Jg-1).
Energy Content/ Value of food

The amount of heat generated from
the combustion of one gram of food
is known as the energy value of the
food.
The unit used to describe energy
values in food is joule per gram (J
g-1).
The amount of energy in food can

also be expressed in terms of
calories.
Energy content of food

Table 1 shows the calorific values for
the three main food classes.
Which class of food has the highest

energy value?
Energy Content / Value of food
Figure 1 : A food calorimeter or a

bomb calorimeter
The energy content

of a particular food
can be measured by
burning a known
mass of the food
completely in the
presence of
oxygen in a bomb
calorimeter
(Figure 1).
The bomb
calorimeter is used to
calculate the
energy value of
various types of
food samples.
It consists of a
Figure 2: Apparatus set-up to

determine the energy value in a food
sample in the lab
Energy Content / Value of food

The energy content of a sample of food can be
determined by first weighing the sample and then
completely burning the food in an atmosphere of
oxygen.
The heat released by the burning food is transferred to
a known volume of water, causing a rise in the
temperature of the water.
The energy value of food can be calculated as follows:
Energy content of food

The following data show the results of an experiment to
determine the energy value of a peanut.
Nutrient Content in Food

The nutrient content of different
food samples can be determined by
carrying out food tests.
Certain foods are rich sources of a
particular nutrient, for example,
starch, proteins or lipids.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Balanced Diet
Vitamins
Vitamins
For maintenance of good health and
efficient metabolism
Can
Can be
be stored
stored in
in body
body
fat
fat
Water Soluble
Vitamins
Obtained
Obtained from
from daily
daily
diet
diet
Vitamins
Vitamins A,
A, D,E,K
D,E,K
Vitamin
Vitamin B
B and
and C
C
Fat Soluble Vitamins
ITeach Biology Form 4
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Balanced Diet
Minerals
Minerals
Must be obtained through diet
Vital for maintenance of good health
Macrominerals
Required in large quantity
100mg / day
Ex: Calcium, phosphorus
Microminerals
Required less than 20
mg / day
Ex: Ferum, iodine,zinc
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Balanced Diet
Roughage or Dietary
Fibre
Made up of cellulose.
Stimulate peristalsis
constipation
and
prevent
Eliminate toxic substances which can

cause bowel cancer
Constipation result from deficiency of

roughage.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Balanced Diet
Water
Water
Act
Act as
as medium
medium of
of
transport
for
transport
for
nutrients
nutrients
Healthy
Healthy adults
adults need
need
22 to
to 2.5
2.5 litres
litres of
of
water
wateraaday.
day.
Water
Water loss
loss need
need to
to
be
replaced
to
be
replaced
to
prevent
preventdehydration.
dehydration.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Balanced Diet
Selection of an Appropriate
Balanced Diet
Level 4
Level 3
Lipids, salt and sugar
Meat and alternatives
Level 2
Level 1
Which level we should take in a large

quantity?
Fruits and vegetables
Rice and alternatives
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.3 Malnutrition
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Malnutrition
Malnutrition
Occurs when a persons diet is not
balanced.
Protein deficiency will lead to
Kwashiorkor and Marasmus problems.
Deficiency
diseases
caused
by
inadequate intake of mainly vitamins,
minerals and amino acids.
Kwashiorkor
Osteoporosis result from a diet lacking in

calcium.
Obesity will result in cardiovascular
disease and diabetes mellitus.
Processing food can cause high blood
pressure.
Marasmus
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.4 Food Digestion
6.4 Food Digestion

The food we consume are complex organic
molecules which are too large to pass through
plasma membranes and enter body cells.
In order for food substances to be used by the
human body, they have to be converted into a form
that can be readily absorbed by the body cells.
Digestion is the process that breaks down
complex food substances into simpler, soluble
molecules that are small enough for the body to
absorb.
Food digestion takes place in the alimentary

canal, a long, muscular tract which extends from
the mouth to the anus.
The alimentary canal consists of the:

mouth
oral cavity
Pharynx
Oesophagus
Stomach
small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum)
large intestine (appendix, caecum, colon,
rectum)
anus.
The Human Digestive System
The small intestine constitutes two

thirds of the length of the alimentary
canal.
Digestion breaks down:
carbohydrates into glucose molecules
proteins into amino acids
lipids into glycerol and fatty acids.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food Digestion
Food Digestion
Breaks down of larger food substances to
simpler soluble molecules, tiny enough for
body to assimilate.
digest
Starch
Protein
Lipids
digest
digest
Glucose
Amino Acids
Glycerol + Fatty Acids
These essential substances are required

by the body cells to carry out metabolic
processes.
For example:
glucose is oxidised to generate energy
amino acids are used to synthesise
proteins such as enzymes and hormones
lipids form a major component of
plasma membranes.
As the food passes through the alimentary

canal, it is broken down in stages until the
digestible material is dissolved and
absorbed.
The indigestible residue is removed
through the anus.
Digestion involves both physical and
chemical processes.
1) Physical digestion
) involves the breaking down of large
pieces of food into smaller pieces by
mechanical means. It starts in the mouth
with the slicing and chewing action of
the teeth.
) continues to a smaller extent in the
stomach by the churning action brought
about by the contraction of the muscles of
the stomach wall.
2) Chemical digestion
Process of breaking down of complex food
molecules into simple soluble molecules
by digestive enzymes.
This process normally involves hydrolysis
reactions. (involved/need water)
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food Digestion
Human Digestive System
Oral cavity
Salivary glands
Pharynx
Oesophagus
Liver
Stomach
Gall bladder
Pancreas
Large intestine
Small intestine
Rectum
Takes place in alimentary

canal with aid of digestive
juices.
Physical digestion - breaking

down of large pieces of food
into smaller pieces.
Chemical digestion - break
down of complex food
molecules
by
digestive
enzymes
into
smaller
molecules.
(A) Digestion in the mouth

The digestive process starts in the mouth.
The chewing action breaks down the food
into smaller pieces and increases the
surface area of the food for digestive
enzymes to act on.
The presence of food in the mouth
triggers secretion of saliva by three
pairs of salivary glands.
Saliva contains the enzyme salivary

amylase which begins the hydrolysis of
starch to maltose.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food Digestion
Digestion in the Mouth
Starch + water
salivary
amilase
maltose
Peristalsis: A series of wave-like

muscular contraction along oesophageal
wall.
The thoroughly chewed food is rolled into

a mass called a bolus in preparation for
swallowing.
During swallowing, a cartilage flap called
the epiglottis temporarily closes the
airway to prevent food from entering the
trachea.
Next, the bolus enters the oesophagus, a
muscular tube lined with epithelium and
mucous glands.
The mucus :
lubricates the bolus
aids the movement of the bolus along the
oesophagus by peristalsis, a series of
wave-like muscular contractions along the
oesophageal wall (Diagram 1).
When the cardiac sphincter relaxes, the
bolus enters the stomach.
Cardiac sphincter is a ring of muscles which
control the opening of the stomach.
Diagram 2 :Secretion of gastric juice in the

stomach
Diagram 1: Peristalsis along the oesophagus
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food Digestion
Digestion in the Mouth
Starch + water
salivary
amilase
maltose
Peristalsis: A series of wave-like

muscular contraction along oesophageal
wall.
(B) Digestion in the stomach

The stomach is a thick-walled, sausageshaped organ situated below the
diaphragm.
It is a muscular sac with a highly folded
inner wall.
The epithelial lining of the stomach
contains gastric glands that secrete
gastric juice (Diagram 2).
Gastric juice contains mucus,
hydrochloric acid and the enzymes
pepsin and rennin.
Diagram 2 :Secretion of gastric juice in the

stomach
(a) Hydrochloric acid

Creates an acidic condition (pH 1.5- 2.0)
which is optimal for the action of the
enzymes in the stomach.
Stops the activity of salivary amylase.
Helps to kill bacteria in food.
(b) Pepsin
starts the hydrolysis of large protein
molecules into smaller chains of
polypeptides by breaking specific peptide
bonds.
(c) Rennin
coagulates milk by converting the soluble
milk protein, caseinogen, into insoluble
casein.
Mucus, secreted by the goblet cells of the

gastric gland, protects the stomach wall
from the action of hydrochloric acid and
digestive enzymes.
Food stays in the stomach for a number of
hours.
During this period, the food is thoroughly
churned and mixed with the gastric juice by the
peristaltic contractions of the stomach wall.
Eventually, the contents of the stomach
become a semi-fluid called chyme.
Relaxation of the pyloric sphincter allows the
chyme to gradually enter the duodenum.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food Digestion
Digestion in the Stomach
Gastric glands secrete gastric juice.

Gastric juice consists of mucus,
hydrochloric acid, enzyme pepsin and
rennin.
Food
stomach
Oesophagus
Lung
Lung
High acidity (pH 2) - sufficient to

destroy existence bacteria in food.
Protein + water
Caseinogen
Diaphragm
pepsin
rennin
Stomach
Finally, chyme is produced.
polypeptides
casein
(C) Digestion in the small intestine

The small intestine consists of the
duodenum, jejunum and the highly coiled
ileum.
The duodenum, the first part of the small
intestine, receives chyme from the
stomach and secretions from the gall
bladder and pancreas.
2) Digestion in the ileum

Glands in the wall of the ileum secrete
intestinal juice which contains digestive
enzymes needed to complete the digestion of
peptides and disaccharides.
The intestinal enzymes require an alkaline
medium to act at an optimum rate.
At the end of the digestive process, all
carbohydrates are digested into
monosaccharides such as glucose, fructose
and galactose.
Proteins are digested into amino acids and
lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
* Show summary
Vitamins and minerals are extremely

small and soluble and need not be
digested.
Dietary fibre cannot be digested in the
human body as the enzyme cellulase is
not produced in the human alimentary
canal.
* Show summary
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food Digestion
Digestion in Small Intestine
Liver
Duodenum
Ileum
Duodenum
Pancreas
Liver
Pancreas
Ileum
Receivesintestinal
chyme
from
stomach
Secrete
juice
Produced
bile that
helps
acidicenzyme
chyme
Secretes
pancreatic
juiceneutralise
that contains
and
optimises
pH
forlipids
enzyme
action in here
duodenum
amylase,
trypsin
and
lipase
Major
site
of nutrient
absorption
Starch,
protein
and
are digested
Digestion of cellulose in ruminants

and rodents
(a) The digestive system of ruminants
Herbivores like ruminants and rodents feed on
plants which contain a high percentage of cellulose,
a polysaccharide which is extremely insoluble.
Therefore, much of the energy in their diets is stored
in this complex carbohydrate. The breakdown of
cellulose requires the enzyme cellulase.
Ruminants obtain most of their energy from the
breakdown of cellulose of plant cell walls by cellulase.
Ruminants
The herbivors that
regurgitate food and
rechew the food.
Although ruminants do not produce

cellulase, their digestive systems are
specially adapted to carry out cellulose
digestion.
Ruminants like cows and goats have
stomachs which are divided into four
chambers, namely rumen, reticulum,
omasum and abomasum.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food Digestion
Digestive System in Ruminants
Rumen
Reticulum
Abomasum
Rumen
Reticulum
Omasum
Abomasum
Omasum
Proteins
food
substances
are digested by
Celluloseand
is hydrolysed.
Reswallowed
cud is
moved to omasum.
digestive
enzymes.
Cellulose
is broken again
down by
cellulase.
Cud
is swallowed
into
mouth and
Large
particle
of
food
are
broken
downsmall
into
The
food
thendown
passes
through
chewed
to break
cellulose.
smaller
intestine.pieces by peristalsis.
This adaptation enables ruminants to

carry out rumination, the process of
regurgitating food and rechewing it.
The first two chambers, the rumen and
reticulum, are specialised compartments
which have large communities of bacteria
and protozoa.
These microorganisms are able to secrete

cellulase to digest cellulose.
In many cases, the microorganisms also use
the sugars and other products of cellulose
digestion along with minerals to synthesise
certain nutrients, such as vitamins and
amino acids, which are essential to the
ruminants.
Diagram 4 shows the processes involved a
cellulose digestion in the digestive system of
a cow.
b) The digestive system of rodents and

other Herbivores
In rodents like rats and herbivores like
rabbits, the caecum and appendix are
enlarged to store the cellulase-producing
bacteria.
In herbivores like, the breakdown products
pass through the alimentary canal twice.
The faeces in the first batch are usually
produced at night, and are soft and
watery.
The digestive system of rodents and

other Herbivores
These are eaten again to enable the
animals to absorb the products of
bacterial breakdown as they pass through
the alimentary canal for the second time.
The second batch of faeces become drier
and harder.
This adaptation allows rabbits to recover
the nutrients initially lost with the faeces.
Diagram 4: Digestion of cellulose by

the digestive system of a rabbit
1
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food Digestion
Rodents
Rodents
ileum
caecum
Have
Havelong
longand
andlarge
largecaecum.
caecum.
Cellulose
Celluloseisisdigested
digestedininthe
thecaecum
caecumby
bybacteria.
bacteria.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food Digestion
Comparison of Digestive Process in
Humans, Ruminants and Rodents
Human
Ruminant
Digest
cellulose
in
stomach
Enzyme
cellulose
is
No enzyme cellulase
secreted in the stomach
Stomach
has
one Stomach
has
four
chamber
chambers
Cannot digest cellulose
Caecum is short
Caecum is short
Rodent
Digest cellulose in the
caecum
Enzyme
cellulose
is
secreated in the caecum
Stomach
has
one
chamber
Caecum is long and
large
Problems associated with food

digestion
The function of the digestive system
depends largely on proper nutrition.
Proper nutrition can help the digestive
system functions at its best.
There are many problems associated with
the digestion of food.
(1)Incomplete digestion
()Incomplete digestion of food may cause
severe pain in the abdomen followed by
nausea, vomiting and a bloated stomach.
()Incomplete digestion of food is caused by
excessive intake of food, eating too much
oily food or eating too fast.
(1) Incomplete digestion

If the food is not chewed properly before
swallowing, the stomach cannot digest the
food properly and this decreases the
effectiveness of the digestive enzymes.
Eating moderately and chewing food
properly help prevent incomplete digestion
of food.
(2) Reduced production of specific

digestive enzymes
Reduced production of specific
digestive enzymes can cause digestive
problems.
Adults usually find it difficult to digest
lactose (milk sugar) compared to a baby
or a child because of the lack of lactase.
This condition is known as lactose
intolerance.
(2) Reduced production of specific

digestive enzymes
Damage to organs such as the pancreas
causes reduced production of digestive
enzymes for the digestion of starch,
proteins and lipids.
As a result, digestion of these foods will be
disrupted and the body will not be able to
obtain sufficient nutrients.
(3) Gallstone preventing the flow of bile

A person who often eats fatty food
encourages the formation of gallstones in the
bile duct and gall bladder.
Gallstones are formed through the hardening
of cholesterol. It is also caused by the
excessive secretion of bilirubin and bile salts.
The size of the gallstones may be as small as
a grain of sand or as big as a golf ball.
(3) Gallstone preventing the flow of bile

When the gallstones block the bile duct,
bile cannot be channelled out. As a result,
lipids cannot be emulsified and are difficult
to digest.
Formation of gallstones usually occurs in
obese people.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.5 Absorption And

Assimilation Of Digested Food
Absorption And Assimilation Of

Digested Food
Digested food consists of small molecules
which can pass through the plasma
membranes of the body cells.
To enter the body cells, nutrients in the
lumen of the small intestine must be
transported across the intestinal lining
into the bloodstream.
Ileum, the last part of the small intestine is
the major site of nutrient absorption.
Adaptive Characteristics of the

Small Intestines for Absorption
It is the longest section of alimentary canal
(about 6m) for longer digestion time and greater
absorption of nutrients.
The intestinal lining (inner wall) is highly folded and
covered by tiny finger-like projections called villi.
The epithelial cells of a villus have a lining of
microscopic projections called microvilli. Villi and
microvilli increase the surface area for
absorption of nutrients.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Absorption And Assimilation Of Digested Food
Absorption And
Assimilation Of Digested
Food
Epithelial cells
Microvilli
Blood capillaries
Lacteal
Epithelial cell
Villus, microvilli, blood capillaries and lacteal

increase the rate of nutrient absorption and
assimilation.
Adaptive Characteristics of the

Small Intestines for Absorption
The epithelial lining is only one cell thick
to make the absorption of nutrients
easy.
Each villus also has a network of blood
capillaries and lymphatic vessel called
lacteal ( blood vessels) to increase
absorption and transportation of
nutrients.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Absorption And
Assimilation Of Digested
Food
Epithelial cells
Microvilli
Blood capillaries
Lacteal
Epithelial cell
Villus, microvilli, blood capillaries and lacteal

increase the rate of nutrient absorption and
assimilation.
(A) Absorption of Digested Food

Nutrient absorption involves both diffusion and
active transport.
(a) In the blood capillaries:

(1) Absorption of glucose and amino acids
()Initially, they diffuse (facilitated diffusion) into the
epithelial cells and are absorbed into the
capillaries.
()Subsequently, the transport of the remaining
nutrients across the epithelial lining involves
active transport which energy is used.

(2) Absorption of mineral ions and water
soluble vitamins B and C
Are absorbed by diffusion (facilitated diffusion)
into the blood capillaries.
(b) In the lacteals:
(1)Absorption of fatty acids and glycerols
()Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into the
epithelial cells of the villi and then they
recombine to form droplets of lipid before enter
the lacteals.

(b) In the lacteals:
(2) Absorption of fat soluble vitamins (ADEK)
Are also diffused (simple diffusion) and
absorbed into the lacteals.
(c) In the colon:
(1) 90% of water and some remaining mineral
ions are reabsorbed into the cells lining the
colon and subsequently into the
bloodstream.

(c) In the colon:
(2) Vitamin K that is synthesized by the
bacteria in the colon is also absorbed.
The absorbed nutrients are transported to
body tissues or organs to be assimilated or to
be stored.
Chapter 6 Nutrition

Absorption of Digested Food
Capillary networkallows transport nutrient to
liver
Epithelial cellallows rapid diffusion

nutrients
Lactealallows absorptions
of fat
To thoracic duct
(fat
droplets,
A,D,E,K)
Vitamin
To liver
(glucose, amino acids,
minerals)
of
(B) Assimilation of Digested Food

Assimilation:
is a metabolic process where the
nutrients are used (utilised) to form
complex compounds or structural
components.
Happens in the liver and in the body cell.

Glucose, amino acids, water soluble vitamin
B and C and minerals are transported by the
blood vessels to the hepatic portal vein.
(Textbook, page 119)
The hepatic portal vein then transports these
nutrients to the liver to be processed for
assimilation or metabolic processes.
The blood circulatory system transports the
nutrients from the liver to the body cells for
assimilation.

The lipid droplets and fat soluble
vitamins ADEK are transported by the
thoracic duct to the left subclavian vein.
The nutrients then enter the blood
circulatory system.
Assimilation in the Body Cells

Amino acids which enter the cells are
used for the:
Synthesis of new protoplasm
Repair the damaged tissues
Important building blocks in the
synthesis of enzymes and hormones.
Glucose is used to produce energy in
cellular respiration.
Assimilation in the Body Cells

Lipids represent the major energy store
of the body. Excess lipids are stored in
the adipose tissue.
Some lipids, eg: phospholipids and
cholesterols are major components of
plasma membranes.
Functions of the Liver

The liver acts as a checkpoint which controls the
amount of nutrients released into the blood
circulatory system.
(a) Regulation of blood glucose levels:
Excess glucose is converted by insulin to
glycogen and stored in the liver.
When the glycogen store in the liver is full,
excess glucose is converted into lipids by the
liver.
When the blood glucose level decreases,
glycogen is converted by glucagon to glucose.

(a) Regulation of blood glucose levels:
Glucose is distributed throughout the body by the
circulatory system.
When the glucose molecules reach the cells, they
are oxidized to release energy during cellular
respiration.
(Textbook pg 119, Figure 6.12)
When there is short supply of glucose and
glycogen, the liver converts amino acids to glucose.

(b) Deamination:
Excess amino acids cannot be stored in the
body and are broken down in the liver by a
process called deamination.
Excess amino acids are converted to
ammonia which is then converted to urea to
be excreted.

(c) Detoxification:
The liver cells remove the harmful
substances from the blood. Bacteria are
killed by phagocytic cells in the liver.
The liver cells convert harmful substances
to a compound which are less toxic by
modified chemically and are eliminated.

(d) Storage Function:
Stores fat soluble vitamins A and D, water
soluble vitamin B12 and mineral ions.
(e) Production of Bile:
Bile is transported to the duodenum to
emulsify fats.
(f) Synthesis of Plasma Protein:
Site of synthesis fibrinogen and
prothrombin (components in blood clotting)
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Assimilation Of Digested Food

Assimilation
is
where
nutrients are used to form
complex compounds.
Deamination Broken down
process of excess amino
acid in liver.
Detoxification - liver cells
remove harmful substances
from blood or convert them
to less toxic compounds.
Glucose --> Glycogen

Glycogen -->Glucose
Excess glucose --> Lipids
Amino acid --> Plasma protein
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.6 Formation Of Faeces And

Defaecation
Formation Of Faeces And Defaecation

After absorption of nutrients has taken place in the
small intestine, the intestinal content enter the colon.
The intestinal contents are mixture of:
~water
~undigested food substances
~indigestible fibre (most is cellulose from plant
cell walls)
The movement of these undigested materials along
the colon is slow and helped by peristalsis.

In the colon, about 90% of the water and
mineral ions are reabsorbed from the
undigested materials into the bloodstream.
Vitamin B12 and K that are synthesized by
the symbiotic bacteria in the colon are also
absorbed.
Finally, the remaining food residue is known
as faeces.

Faeces consists of:
~undigested food residue
~dead epithelial cells (membranes of
intestine)
~bile pigments (bring colour to the faeces)
~toxic substances / bacteria
~water
~fibre

The wall of the colon secretes mucus
to smoothen the movement of the
faeces.
The faeces is kept in the colon for 1214 hours.
The faeces is pushed into the rectum
which is the temporary storage place.

When the rectum is full, pressure in the
rectum increases, causing a desire to
expel the faeces from the body.
Spinchter muscles relax and the rectal
wall contracts.
The faeces are eliminated through the
anus in a process called defecation.

Defecation is important to:
~eliminate undigested substances
~eliminate toxic substances
produced during fermentation by
bacteria.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Formation of Faeces and Defaecation
Avoid
toxicity
human body.
colon
solid waste
rectum
The
formation
of
faeces in the colon
in
Excrete wastes and

unwanted
toxic
substances.
Defective
defaecation may
lead to headache
and lost appetite.
Role of Microorganism in the Colon

The colon also serves as a habitat for a flourishing
population of bacteria.
The symbiotic microorganisms living in the human colon, eg:
~ Escherichia coli
1) synthesise vitamin B12 and K that can be
absorbed through the colon wall
2) maintain a stable environment in the alimentary
canal.
The microbial population in the colon can be killed due to
excessive consumption of antibiotics.
Problem Related to Defecation

1. Constipation
Difficulty elimination of feaces as the faeces become dry and hard.
This is caused by the extremely slow movement of faeces through
the colon.
As a result, a greater amount of water is reabsorbed in the colon,
making the faeces hard.
Can be avoided :
~by drinking a lot of water
~by taking dietary fibre
Chronic constipation can cause piles, which can cause bleeding
during defecation.
Problem Related to Defecation

2. Haemorrhoids
Swollen veins in the rectum or anus due to
excessive pressure exerted to eliminate
faeces.
3) Colon cancer
The symptoms are irregular frequency of
bowel (usus) movement and blood in
faeces.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.7 Evaluating Eating Habits
Evaluating Eating Habits

Earlier, we learned the importance of a balanced diet. It is
also important that we practise good eating habits.
In recent times, we hear of increasing cases of eating
disorders. Most cases of eating disorders reflect a
disruption in normal eating habits.
Good eating habits mean taking food in the correct
quantity at the correct time.
We should refrain from overeating or eating too little during
a meal. For example, a balanced breakfast is essential as
it provides all the nutrients required by the body.

A normal person should take in three meals a day: breakfast,
lunch and dinner. He or she must also eat a variety of food to
satisfy the body's nutrient requirement.
Sufficient amounts of fibre from fruits and vegetables must be
included in the meals.
Drinking at least 2 to 3 litres of water a day is essential. This
helps to flush out toxins from the body.
One should also avoid taking excessive fatty food and food
rich in sugar.
Improper eating habits are associated with various health
problems which affect a large number of the population.
Chapter 6 Nutrition

Good eating habits mean taking food in
the adequate quantity at the right time.
Bulimia
Health
Health
Problem
Problem
Related
Relatedto
to
Bad
BadEating
Eating
Habits
Habits
Anorexia nervosa
Obesity
Gastritis
Health Problems Related To Eating

Habits
(A)Gastritis
()
is a condition where the epithelial lining of the stomach
becomes inflamed.
()
The stomach lining is normally covered with a layer of mucus
which protects it from hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes.
()
Gastric juice is secreted into the lumen of the stomach
whenever one feels hungry.
()
If food is not taken at regular times, the absence of food in
the stomach results in the acidic gastric juice acting on the
epithelial lining of the stomach wall.

Habits
(A) Gastritis
()Gastritis occurs when the protective mechanism
in the stomach is disrupted and this results in
damage to the stomach lining.
()When the breach in the stomach lining develops
into a hole, gastric ulcer may result.
()For most types of gastritis, treatment involves
taking medication such as antacids to reduce or
neutralise stomach acids.

Habits
Excessive alcohol consumption and
stress:
can damage the stomach lining.
Taking aspirin and other pain relievers
regularly:
can also cause the stomach lining to
become inflamed.

Habits
(B) Obesity
is defined as the excessive storage of energy
in the form of fat.
This results from a lack of balance between
food intake and energy expenditure.
Obesity is one of our nation's most critical
health problems and is directly responsible for
a huge number of deaths each year.

Habits
(B) Obesity
Obese people are predisposed to a number
diseases including cardiovascular disease,
hypertension and diabetes
For many, obesity leads to often life
threatening diseases disorder such as
anorexia nervosa and bulimia.

Habits
(C) Aneroxia nervosa
Experience an intense fear of gaining weight.
They intentionally deprive themselves of food to achieve a
severe loss in body weight, often 15% or more below their
normal body weight.
This condition is potentially fatal and is recognised as a
psychological disorder.
Individuals with this disorder have a distorted body image
which convinces them they are fat.

Habits
(C) Aneroxia nervosa
In an attempt to boost their self-esteem, they refrain from
eating to the extent that they become extremely emaciated.
They lose both fat and muscle and this eventually leads to
disruptions of the functions of the heart, endocrine system
and reproductive system.
Early treatment can correct some of the physical symptoms
through nutrition and gradual restoration of body mass.

Habits
(D) Bulimia
may have a normal body mass.
Bulimia is characterised by sequences of
excessive food intake and purging to
counteract the effects of the binge.
The victims engage in consuming huge
amounts of food within a short period of time.

Habits
(D) Bulimia
This is followed immediately by self-induced
vomiting or purging through laxative abuse.
Repeated purging results in serious injury to
the digestive tract and can cause an
imbalance of mineral ions in the blood.
This can lead to cardiovascular problems
and kidney damage.
Nutrient Contents of Food
Good eating habits also involve choosing the types of food

we eat wisely.
Are you aware of the contents of the food that you consume
everyday?
Do you normally check the food labels for information
regarding the nutrient contents of the food you buy?
Food manufacturers are required to provide nutritional
labelling on commercially packaged food.
The labels of food packets and containers provide complete
information about the total calories per serving and the
contents of various nutrients.
Nutrient contents of food
As consumers we are able to make informed

choices about the types of food we consume by
studying the food labels.
When buying food, we must consider the nutrients
contents, freshness and various safety aspects
~ for example whether the food contains
additives which may have adverse effects
on our health.
The nutritional information obtained from these
sources will help reduce health problems related
to poor eating habits.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.8 The Importance Of A Healthy

Digestive System
Chapter 6 Nutrition
The Importance Of A Healthy Digestive System
The
The Importance
Importance Of
Of A
A
Healthy
Healthy Digestive
Digestive
System
System
Indigestion
Effects of a
Defective
Digestive
System on
Health
Overeating
Too much spicy food
Constipation
Haemorrhoids
Prolonged
constipation
Diarrhoea
Formation of
bile stone
Prevent the flow

of
bile
to
duodenum
Chapter 6 Nutrition
The Importance Of A Healthy Digestive System
Ways to Take Care of

Digestive System
Good
habit
eating
Avoid junk food

Eat nutritious food
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.9 The Importance Of

Macronutrients And
Micronutrients In Plants
6.9 The Importance Of Macronutrients And

Elements required by plants
Green plants are able to synthesise their own nutrients.
To do this, they require raw materials in the form of
inorganic substances: carbon dioxide, water and mineral
nutrients.
Mineral nutrients are essential chemical elements required by
plants to:
1) complete their life cycle
2) achieve optimal growth and development.
What are the mineral elements required by plants?
The Importance Of Macronutrients And

The Importance of
Macronutrients and
Micronutrients
in
Plants
Chapter 6 Nutrition
To accomplish their
life cycle, growth and
development.
Ex:
Carbon
hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O).
(C),
and

Elements required by plants
Carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are three
macronutrients that can be easily obtained from carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere and water from the soil.
Therefore, deficiency in these nutrients rarely occurs.
They are the most abundant elements found in a plant and form the
major ingredients of organic compounds, most of which are
carbohydrates.
The remaining mineral nutrients are obtained in the form of inorganic
ions from the soil.

The six macronutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg)
and sulphur (S) are needed by plants in relatively
large amounts.
Micronutrients which include boron (B), copper
(Cu), ferum (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum
(Mo) and zinc (Zn) are needed in very small
amounts.
To determine which elements are required for normal
growth, plant seedlings are grown in a complete culture
solution, also known as Knop's solution (Table 6.3).

We can investigate whether a plant needs a particular
mineral element by eliminating it from Knop's solution.
Macronutrients and micronutrients are involved in the
synthesis of chemical substances essential for the
healthy growth of plants.
They are also required for the various metabolic
processes which take place within plants.
The absence of one or more of these nutrients can lead
to mineral deficiency in plants.
6.9 The Importance Of Macronutrients

And Micronutrients In Plants
The symptoms of mineral deficiency depend on
the functions of the mineral in the plant.
For example, nitrogen (N) is the macronutrient
that influences plant growth the most.
It is a major component of proteins, nucleic
acids, chlorophyll and enzymes of
photosynthesis and respiration.
6.9 The Importance Of Macronutrients

And Micronutrients In Plants
Nitrogen is important for the rapid growth of
stems and leaves, and increases seed and
fruit yield.
The most common symptoms of nitrogen
deficiency are chlorosis and stunted growth.
In chlorosis, synthesis of chlorophyll is inhibited,
resulting in pale yellow leaves.
Table 6.4 The functions and effects of deficiency

of other macronutrients
Chapter 6 Nutrition

Function of Macronutrient in
Plants
Element
Element
Function
Function
Nitrogen
To synthesis chlorophyll
Phosphorus
Necessary for cell division
Potassium
Protein
synthesis,
metabolism
Calcium
Needed for formation of cell wall
Magnesium
Sulphur
To
synthesis
protoplasm
carbohydrate
chlorophyll
and
To synthesis protein and nucleic acids
Chapter 6 Nutrition

The Effects of Macronutrient

Deficiency
Ca
General
yellowing
of
affected leaves
Red spots on
leaves surfaces
Poor growth
Red or purple
spots on old
leaves
Mg
Stunted growth
Leaves become
distorted
Yellow-edged leaves
Plant will die
Leaves turn
yellow
The Functions And Effects of

Deficiency of Micronutrients
In addition to macronutrients, micronutrients
or trace elements, are also essential for plant
growth.
Recycling organic matter such as grass
clippings and tree leaves is an excellent way of
providing micronutrients to growing plants.
Table 6.5 shows the functions and effects of
micronutrient deficiency in plants.

Function of Micronutrients in Plant
Element
Element
Boron
Copper
Function
Function
Necessary for the development of
apical meristems
Reproductive growth and flower
formation
Ferum
To synthesis chlorophyll
Manganese
Activate certain enzymes
Molybdenum
For nitrogen metabolism
Zinc
Formation of leaves, synthesis of

auxin
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Chapter 6 Nutrition

The Effects of Micronutrient Deficiency
Death of terminal
buds, abnormal
plant growth
Brown
between
veins
spots
the
Yellowing of
young
leaves
Brown spots
Cu Death of tips of
young shoots
Fe
Mn
Mo
Mottled leaves
Zn
Chlorosis
Studying the Effects of Macronutrient

1) Problem statement Deficiencies In Plants
What are the effects of macronutrient decencies in plants?
2) Variables
Manipulated variable: Components of mineral elements in each
jar
Responding variable: Condition of the plants
Constant variables: The volume of the solution, the size and
type of maize seedlings, air that is pumped into
the jar
3) Hypothesis
Plant grows healthily in a complete Knop's solution (jar B).
4) Materials
Maize seedlings, potassium nitrate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate,
magnesium sulphate, calcium nitrate, iron(III) phosphate, distilled
water, cotton wool and black paper.
The apparatus set-up to study the effects

of macronutrient deficiencies in plants
5) Apparatus:
Glass jars, rubber bungs with holes, straight glass
tubes to fit into the holes of the rubber bungs, L-shaped
delivery tubes to be connected to an air pump, and a
knife.
6) Technique
Observe and record the conditions of seedlings at the
end of one month.
*Note:
The growth of green algae can deplete the nutrient
content of the culture solutions and affect the results of
the experiment.
7) Procedure:
1 Eight glass jars labelled A to H are prepared.
2 The jars are filled with the solutions as given in Table 6.9.
3 The jars are wrapped with black paper to prevent the
growth of green algae.
4 Eight maize seedlings of almost the same size are chosen.
5 The glass jars are connected to an air pump to provide
aeration to the roots so that respiration can take place.
6 The culture solutions are replaced every week to replenish
the nutrients absorbed by the maize seedlings.
7 The growth of each seedling is observed at the end of one
month.
8 The colour, number, size and shape of leaves, height of
seedlings, length of roots, the growth of branches and the
strength of the stems are observed and recorded in a
table.
Table 6.9 Nutrient contents of glass jars A to H
Results
8) Discussion:
The maize seedling in jar B grows healthily the jar contains
Knop's solution.
The seedling in jar A does not show any growth as it does
not contain any nutrients.
The maize seedlings in the other jars show the effects of
macronutrient deficiencies.
The symptoms shown are related to the function of each
macronutrients in plants
9) Conclusion
Plants will only grow healthily when the contents of the
nutrient components in the jar are complete (jar B) . If there
is a deficiency of a certain nutrient, the plant will have
symptoms that show what is lacking. The hypothesis is
accepted.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.10 Photosynthesis
Chapter 6 Nut
Photosynthesis
Discovery Of Photosynthesis
1640
Jean Baptiste Van

Helmont
Study how plants grow
1772
Joseph Priestly
Show green plant restore O2
1779
Jan Ingenhousz
1780
Jean Senebier
1845
Robert Mayer
1905
F.F Blackman
1937
Robert Hill
Photosynthesis = CO2 + Water
Discover plant release O2 in

presence of sunlight
Prove plant release O2 when there is
CO2
Find light energy convert to chemical
energy
Determine photosynthesis involve
light and dark reaction
Verify photosynthesis require
sunlight, water and CO2
light
Carbohydrate + O2
(glucose)
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Photosynthesis
LeafStructure
Structureand
andFunction
Function
Leaf
Cuticle
- Enables the leaf to trap sunlight
Upper epidermis
-Prevents loss of water.
Palisade mesophyll
Contains many
chloroplasts.
- Absorbs sunlight.
Spongy mesophyl cell

-Allow diffusion of water
and gases.
Guard cells
- Regulate opening
and closures of
pores
Stomata
- Allows gaseous exchange
between
leaf
and
environment
Xylem
- Transports water
from roots to the
leaf
Phloem
- Transports organic
product away from
the leaf
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Photosynthesis
Adaptionof
ofPlants
Plantsfrom
fromDifferent
DifferentHabitats
Habitatsto
to
Adaption
CarryOut
OutPhotosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Carry
Land plants
Land plants
Ex: Hibiscus
More stomata on the lower

surface of the leaf
An abundant chloroplast in
palisade cells and spongy
mesophyll cells
Plant floating on surface of water
Plant floating on surface of water
Adaption
of
Plants
from
Different Habitats
Ex: Water lily
Large, round and flat leaves
Chloroplast are found in

leaves and stems
Desert plants
Desert plants
Ex: Cactus
Reduced
leaves
sunken stomata
Leaves in thorn form

with
Adaptation of Land plants

The distribution of
stomata is more on
the lower epidermis
layer to absorb more
carbon dioxide and
reduce transpiration
Chloroplasts can be
found abundantly in
the mesophyll
palisade cells and
spongy mesophyll
cells to absorb more
Adaptation of Aquatic plants

Floating plants such as the lotus,
have huge, round and flat leaves
to enable them to absorb more
sunlight.
The distribution of stomata on
the upper layers of the leaves
facilitates the absorption of
carbon dioxide and the release
of oxygen
Submerged plants usually do
not have stomata
Chloroplasts are found on the
leaves and stem of the plants
Adaptation of Dessert plants

Have a few
stomata which
are sunken to
reduce
transpiration
The stomata are
usually found on
the lower layers of
the surface of the
leaves
Chloroplasts can
be found on the
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.11 The Mechanism Of

Photosynthesis
Chapter 6 Nutrition
The Mechanism Of Photosynthesis
The Mechanism of Photosynthesis

Two main stages in photosynthesis are light reaction and
dark reaction.
Granum
Light reaction
occur here.
Two
main
substances
required:
H2O,
sunlight
Products:
H2O + O2 +
ATP
Stroma
Dark reaction
occur here
Three
main
substances
required:
hydrogen
atom , CO2,
ATP
Products:
H2O
+
Glucose
Mechanism of Photosynthesis
1) Light Reaction
The chlorophyll in the thylakoids absorbs
light energy which excites the molecule of
chlorophyll until it releases an electron.
The light energy is used to break down/
split water molecules to become hydrogen
ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-).
This reaction is known as photolysis of
water.
1) Light Reaction
Electrons combine with the hydrogen
ions to produce hydrogen atoms and
chemical energy in the form of ATP
which will be used in the dark reaction.
1) Light Reaction
Hydroxide ions release electrons to the chlorophyll
to replace the excited electrons released from
chloroplast and form hydroxide group.
The combination of hydroxide group will form water

and oxygen.
1) Dark Reaction (Calvin Cycle)
After the light reaction is completed,
the dark reaction takes place.
The dark reaction does not involve the
use of light.
Try to remember which parts of the
chloroplast absorb light. Your answer
will explain why the dark reaction does
not involve light.
1) Dark Reaction
The dark reaction occurs in the stroma.
Hydrogen atoms from the light reaction
react with carbon dioxide and produce
glucose.
This reaction is known as the reduction
of carbon dioxide to glucose.
This reaction is catalysed by enzymes
and involves the use of energy, ATP.
6 (CH2O)
1) Dark Reaction
(CH2O) is the basic unit of glucose.
Six units of (CH2O) combine to form one
molecule of glucose.
The glucose monomers then undergo
condensation to form starch.
Starch is temporarily stored as starch
granules in the chloroplasts.
The following is a complete equation for
photosynthesis:
6H2O + 6CO2
Light energy
chlorophyll
C6H1206+ 6O2
A comparison between the light

reaction and dark
Use in cellular
respiration
Undergoes
condensation to
form starch
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Summary
The Mechanism of Photosynthesis

Two main stages in photosynthesis are light reaction and
dark reaction.
Granum
Light reaction
occur here.
Two
main
substances
required:
H2O,
sunlight
Products:
H2O + O2 +
ATP
Stroma
Dark reaction
occur here
Three
main
substances
required:
hydrogen
atom , CO2,
ATP
Products:
H2O
+
Glucose
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.12 The Factors Affecting

Photosynthesis
Chapter 6 Nutrition
The Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
Factors
Factors Affecting
Affecting
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Light Intensity
3 Factors
Affecting
Photosynthesis
Concentration of
Carbon Dioxide
Temperature
Chapter 6 Nutrition

When the concentration of CO2
and temperature are controlled at
constant level, the rate of
photosynthesis
is
directly
proportional to light intensity up
to a certain point.(P)
Light
Intensity
Rate of photosynthesis
Light intensity
Refer textbook pg 135, Figure

6.19
Beyond point P, no increase in

rate of photosynthesis even if the
light
intensity
increases.
Concentration
of
CO2
or
temperature
become
the
limiting factor because of
insufficient.
The rate of photosynthesis will
increase again by increasing the
concentration
of
CO2
or
temperature.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
The Factors Affecting

Photosynthesis
Concentration of
Carbon Dioxide
increases
when
concentration of CO2
increases.
Concentration of
carbon dioxide

6.20
At BC, increasing CO2

concentration will not
increase the rate of
photosynthesis because
light
intensity
and
temperature are limiting
factors.
Chapter 6 Nutrition

Temperat
Temperat
ure
ure
Optimum temperature: 25oC

to 30oC.
Optimum temperature
When temperature increase as

much
as
10oC,
rate
of
photosynthesis increases doubly.
Temperature

6.21
Conclusion:
At temperature above 40oC,

enzymes are denaturated cause
rate of photosynthesis to decrease
and stops.
Photosynthesis rate is high when
light intensity and temperature are
high.
The difference in the rate of

photosynthesis in plants throughout the
day
The rate of photosynthesis is not
constant throughout the day.
In the morning and evening: is low
In the midday: is the highest
At night: stop
The difference in the rate of

photosynthesis in plants throughout the
year
The rate of photosynthesis is not
constant throughout the year.
In the summer: is the highest
In the autumn: is low
During winter: decrease (cease)
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.13 A Caring Attitude

Towards Plants
Chapter 6 Nutrition
A Caring Attitude Towards Plants

The
The
Importance
Importanceof
of
AAGood
Good
Attitude
Attitude
towards
towardsPlants
Plants
Maintains
contents of O2
and CO2 in air
Provide wildlife
and fish habitat
Plays important
roles
in
ecosystem
Regulates
normal climate
Produces
foods
green
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.14 Technology Used In Food

Production
6.14 Technology Used in Food Production

Introduction
The need for improving the quality and quantity of food
The rapid increase in the country's population imposes a
greater demand on food supply.
There is a need to improve the quality and quantity of food
production to meet the demands of the growing population.
In order to improve the quality and quantity of food, the
Agriculture Ministry of Malaysia has drawn up several
strategies to sustain the production of food in the country.
Among these are strategies to raise productivity in food
production and support the food industries.
The ministry has also given priority to the production of food
such as rice, fruits, vegetables, fishes and poultry.
The efforts by various agencies to diversify food

production
1) Ulam
is a type of salad which includes fresh leaves, fruits and other plant
parts which are eaten raw.
It is a traditional Malay dish but it is now well accepted by other races.
Examples of ulam include pegaga (Centella asiatica), shoots of
papaya, kacang botor, petai (Parkia speciosa) and kemangi
(Ocimum sanctum).
They are rich in mineral ions, vitamins and fibre. Some of these
plants are also used in the preparation of herbal medicines and drinks.
The efforts by various agencies to diversify food production

2) Chicken, fish and meat.
In order to diversify the sources of protein, the government
encourages the consumption of rabbit meat, quail meat, ostrich
meat, freshwater fish and prawns.
Rabbit meat is rich in protein but low in fat and cholesterol. The
meat has a soft texture and is suitable for young children.
Ostrich meat is nutritious, rich in protein and low in fat.
Freshwater fish like tilapia, jelawat and haruan are low in
cholesterol. Fish protein is easily digestible and is much needed
by growing children for healthy development.
Photograph 6.8 The diverse sources of food
The efforts by various agencies to diversify food

production
3) Mushrooms
Another nutritious source of food is mushrooms.
There is a wide variety of mushrooms available in
our country, for example, button mushrooms,
abalone mushrooms and shittake mushrooms.
These mushrooms have a high nutrient content
and some, like the shittake mushrooms, are
believed to be able to increase the body's
immunity.
Methods used to improve the quality and

quantity of food production
These include:
Direct seeding for rice
Hydroponics for vegetables
Aeroponics for vegetables
Breeding of plants and animals
Tissue culture
Genetic engineering
Crop rotation
Soil management
Biological control.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Technology Used In Food Production

Technology Used In Food Production
Crop rotation
Direct seeding
Method used to
improve the
quality and
quantity of food
production
Hydroponics
Aeroponics
Breeding of plant
Animal breeding
Biological control
1) Direct seeding
is a method by which seeds are sown directly into the soil by
using special machines.
The seeds are covered with soil while they are being sown.
This technique does not involve transplanting of seedlings
and therefore results in less damage to the roots of the
seedlings.
The plants achieve faster growth and this increases the
yield.
Less water is needed to irrigate the fields.
This method is widely used in the planting of paddy to obtain
higher yields of rice.
2) Hydroponics
a commercial technique for growing certain crop plants
in culture solutions rather than soil (Photograph 6.9)
The roots of the plants are immersed in a solution
which contains all the macronutrients and
micronutrients required by the plants in the correct
proportion.
The plants are supported by a medium such as pebbles.
The culture solution is aerated to provide sufficient
oxygen for respiration.
3) Aeroponics
is a modified technique of hydroponics.
In this method, the plants are suspended in
a special chamber with the roots exposed
to the nutrient are sprayed onto the roots
of the plants at suitable intervals.
This enables the plant roots to absorb
more oxygen in between the periods of
spraying.
Almost all types of vegetables like spinach, lettuce,

tomatoes and chillies can be cultivated by using
hydroponics and aeroponics methods.
Both methods have a lot of benefits compared to planting in
soil:
1) Light intensity and temperature can be controlled to ensure
that the environmental factors are at an optimum level for
maximum growth.
2) The plants can be grown all year round and higher yields
can be obtained.
3) Plants achieve faster growth because the culture solutions
provide nutrients in a form that can be readily absorbed by
the roots and used by the plants to carry out living
processes.
4) Selective Breeding (in Plants)

In this technique, different plant varieties with certain
beneficial characteristics are selectively bred.
The resulting varieties of plants (hybrid plant)
inherit the beneficial characteristics of both parent
plants.
Beneficial characteristics of hybrid plant:
~ have increased nutritional value
~ higher yields
~ show greater resistance to diseases and
climatic changes.
In Malaysia, the most widely planted variety of oil
palm is Tenera sp.
4) Selective Breeding (in Plants)

It is a variety produced by crossing the
parent varieties of Dura sp. and Pisifera sp.
Tenera sp. possesses the beneficial
characteristics of Dura sp. and Pisifera sp.
It produces fruit with less fibre and more
oil content (Photograph 6.10).
The fruit do not drop off easily from the
bunch.
Many varieties of paddy, maize, sugar cane
and vegetables have also been cross-bred
by scientists.
Photograph 6.10 The Tenera sp. variety

has a big kernel, a thick mesocarp and
a thin endocarp
5) Animal breeding
involves the cross breeding of two different
breeds of animals.
Animals have been selectively bred to enhance
the yields of milk, meat and other products.
In Malaysia, the hybrid cattle called Mafriwal is
bred in farms for its milk.
Mafriwal is a cross between a Friesian cow
and a Sahiwal bull.
Mafriwal produces more milk with low fat
content.
Many breeds of goats, sheep, chickens and
ducks have also been cross-bred in Malaysia.
Mafriwal
6) Tissue culture
This process involves tissue culture in which an entire
plant can be regenerated from the cells or tissues
of a parent plant.
The cells or tissues(explant) taken from the parent
plant are grown in a sterile culture medium or
culture solution which contains the necessary
nutrients and growth hormones.
Plantlets which are produced can then be
transplanted to nurseries.
In Malaysia, tissue culture of plant tissues enables
commercial propagation of clones which have all the
beneficial characteristics of the parent plants.
This method helps increase the agricultural yield of
many crop plants like papayas, pineapples and
starfruits.
Photograph 6.11
Producing clones through tissue culture
technique
7) Genetic engineering
is a technique that has great potential in
improving the quality and quantity of food to
meet the needs of an increasing world
population.
This technique enables the characteristics of
an organism to be altered by changing the
genetic composition of the organism.
It involves the transfer of beneficial genes
from one organism to another organism.
For example, genes from plants can be
inserted into the DNA of animal cells and vice
versa.
7) Genetic engineering
The genetically modified organism
(GMO) is called a transgenic organism.
Developments in genetic engineering
have enabled transgenic crop plants such
as wheat, tomatoes, legumes, soya beans
and potatoes to be cultivated
commercially.
These crop plants contain genes from
other organisms to enhance growth,
nutritional properties and resistance
against diseases.
8) Soil Management
Another method of increasing productivity is
to practise proper soil management.
Soil should be cultivated in a controlled
manner
So that not all minerals are removed from it
at any one time.
Regular addition of organic or inorganic
fertilisers returns the nutrients to the soil.
Ploughing helps increase aeration in the
soil.
9) Crop Rotation
Many countries practise crop rotation to maintain and
improve soil fertility and prevent the build-up of pests
which are peculiar to certain crop species.
In this method, different plants are cultivated in
succession on the same plot of land over a period of
time. In a typical four-stage rotation, legumes are an
important source of nitrogen for the soil. Other crops
that can be included are leafy plants, plants that bear
fruits like watermelons and root plants like onion and
garlic.
Steps must also be taken to reduce soil erosion and the
leaching of nutrients from the soil. Addition of organic
matter promotes humus formation and improves the soil
structure. This helps promote plant growth.
10) Biological control

Is the control of pests by biological means.
This is achieved by introducing a natural enemy of the pest,
such as a predator or a parasite.
The predator or parasite either feeds on or kills the pest.
In Malaysia, owls and snakes have been used successfully to
control the rat population in oil palm plantations.
In Australia, the population of the prickly pear cactus (Opuntia
sp.) is controlled by introducing the cactus moth (Cactoblastis
cactorum).
This method of pest control is beneficial as it reduces a
number of problems associated with chemical control which
uses pesticides.
However, care must be taken to avoid upsetting the natural
ecological balance, for example, a particular predator may
harm other species which are beneficial.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
6.15 Technological Development In

Food Processing
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Technological Development In Food Processing

TechnologicalDevelopment
DevelopmentIn
InFood
Food
Technological
Processing
Processing
Process of preparing food to make it more
attractive, more edible and last longer
To preserve food
from food spoilage
To enhance its
commercial value
The Necessity for

Food Processing
Expanding
the
uses
of
food
substances
To withstand
periods
transportation
storage
long
of
and
6.15 Technological Development

In Food Processing
The necessity for food processing:

Food processing is the process of preparing
food to make it more attractive, more palatable
and to last longer.
So that it can withstand long periods of
transportation and storage
To preserve food by overcoming the factors
that cause food spoilage. This avoids
wastage of food and prevents food poisoning
due to food spoilage.
To increase its commercial value.
Photograph 6.12 The various processed

food found on the supermarket shelf
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Food
Preservation
Involves methods of preparing food to

increase lifespan of food.
Oxidation
Oxidationof
offood
food
What causes
causes
What
foodspoilage?
spoilage?
food
The
The action
action of
of
microorganism
microorganism on
on
food
food
Infestation
Infestation
insects
insects
rodents
rodents
by
by
and
and
6.15 Technological Development

In Food Processing
Food preservation involves methods of preparing food to extend the
lifespan of food so that it can be stored for future use.
Food substances are processed in various ways to ensure that
there is a continuous supply for the population.
What causes food spoilage?

One of the causes is the action of microorganisms on food,
especially decomposing bacteria and fungi which act on
carbohydrates and proteins in food to produce carbon dioxide,
water, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and other organic substances.
The presence of these substances spoils the food and makes it
toxic.
Food preservation prevents bacterial and fungal decay and
contamination of food, which can cause food poisoning.
6.15 Technological Development In Food Processing
Another cause for food spoilage is the oxidation of

food.
Have you noticed how apples turn brown very
quickly when cut and exposed to air?
This condition is due to oxygen reacting with
enzymes and chemicals released by the cells in the
fruit.
What happens to fried food that is exposed to air
for an extended period of time?
Oily food becomes rancid, smells and tastes
different as a result of oxidation.
Rancid food is harmful to the body.
Correlating the food processing methods

with factors causing food spoilage
Microorganisms, like other living
organisms, require food, water, oxygen
and a suitable temperature for growth and
reproduction. In addition, microorganisms
can only survive in conditions with
optimum pH and solute concentrations.
Food can be preserved by destroying the
microorganisms present in the food or by
stopping the activities of these
microorganisms.
Chapter 6 Nutrition
Typesof
of Processing
Processing Method
Method
Types
Cooking
Pickling
Fermentation
7 Types of
Processing
Method
Drying
Pasteurisation
Canning
Refrigeration
Correlating the food processing methods

with factors causing food spoilage
1) Cooking
is the easiest way to prevent food spoilage. Heating
food at high temperatures can kill microorganisms
and denature the enzymes that cause the
breakdown of food.
2) Treating food with salt or sugar
causes the microorganisms to lose water due to
osmosis.
Pickling food such as chillies with vinegar reduces
the pH and prevents microorganisms from growing.
Vegetables and fruits are normally preserved by
using this method.
3) Fermentation
Fruit juices and other food substances can be
fermented by adding yeast.
Fermentation of fruit juices produces ethanol which,
at high concentrations, prevents the juices from
becoming spoiled.
The ethanol produced has great commercial value.
Traditional food such as tapai is produced by the
fermentation of pulut rice or tapioca.
4) Drying
Fish, meat and fruits can be dried to preserve them.
Drying under the hot sun removes water from food
This prevents the microorganisms from growing.
The ultraviolet rays of the sun also kill bacteria and
many other microorganisms.
5) Pasteurisation
Milk is preserved by pasteurisation to
destroy bacteria which cause diseases
such as those of tuberculosis and typhoid.
This method of preservation retains the
natural flavour of milk.
Nutrients like vitamin B are not destroyed.
In this process, milk is heated to 63C for
30 minutes or to 72C for 15 seconds
followed by rapid cooling to below 10C.
The pasteurised milk can then be
refrigerated to last for a few days.
Fruit juices and soups can also be
preserved this way.
6) Canning
Uses heat sterilisation to kill
microorganisms and their spores.
The food is packed in cans and
steamed at high temperatures and
pressure to drive out air.
The cans containing food are then
sealed while the food is being cooled.
The vacuum created within the cans
prevents growth of microorganisms.
7) Refrigeration (Freezing)
Is a common method employed at
home to keep food such as meat and
fish from spoiling.
Food stored at temperatures below
0C can remain fresh for a long
period of time.
The extremely low temperatures
prevent the growth of
microorganisms or the germination of
spores.
Photograph 6.13
Examples of pasteurised milk

Chapter 6

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Chapter 6

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Chapter 6 Nutrition

6.1 Types Of Nutrition

State the types of nutrition

Holozoic nutrition - Carnivore

arnivorous plants (Holozoic nutritiontcher plants

Hunts and eat

6.2 Balanced Diet

For various metabolic reactions.

For growth and repair

During respiration, the energy is

Unit of energy value =

Energy Content/ Value of food

The amount of energy in food can

Energy content of food

Which class of food has the highest

Energy Content / Value of food

Figure 1 : A food calorimeter or a

The energy content

Figure 2: Apparatus set-up to

Energy Content / Value of food

Energy content of food

Nutrient Content in Food

Fat Soluble Vitamins

ITeach Biology Form 4

Required in large quantity

Ex: Calcium, phosphorus

ITeach Biology Form 4

Eliminate toxic substances which can

Constipation result from deficiency of

ITeach Biology Form 4

Lipids, salt and sugar

Meat and alternatives

Which level we should take in a large

Fruits and vegetables

Rice and alternatives

ITeach Biology Form 4

Osteoporosis result from a diet lacking in

6.4 Food Digestion

ITeach Biology Form 4

6.4 Food Digestion

Food digestion takes place in the alimentary

The alimentary canal consists of the:

The Human Digestive System

The small intestine constitutes two

ITeach Biology Form 4

Glycerol + Fatty Acids

These essential substances are required

As the food passes through the alimentary

ITeach Biology Form 4

Takes place in alimentary

Physical digestion - breaking

(A) Digestion in the mouth

Saliva contains the enzyme salivary

Peristalsis: A series of wave-like

The thoroughly chewed food is rolled into

Diagram 2 :Secretion of gastric juice in the

Diagram 1: Peristalsis along the oesophagus

Peristalsis: A series of wave-like

(B) Digestion in the stomach

Diagram 2 :Secretion of gastric juice in the

(a) Hydrochloric acid

Mucus, secreted by the goblet cells of the

Gastric glands secrete gastric juice.