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Multiplexing
Spread spectrum
Modulation
Cellular systems
coax cable
1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
VLF
LF
optical transmission
100 m
3 MHz
MF
HF
1m
300 MHz
VHF
UHF
10 mm
30 GHz
SHF
100 m
3 THz
EHF
infrared
1 m
300 THz
visible light UV
= c/f
wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f
etc.
Cordless
Phones
Wireless
LANs
Others
Europe
USA
Japan
PDC
810-826,
940-956,
1429-1465,
1477-1513
PHS
1895-1918
JCT
254-380
902-928
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
5150-5350, 5725-5825
IEEE 802.11
2471-2497
5150-5250
RF-Control
315, 915
RF-Control
426, 868
Signals I
1
g (t ) c an sin( 2nft ) bn cos(2nft )
2
n 1
n 1
0
t
real composition
(based on harmonics)
Signals II
A [V]
A [V]
t[s]
I= M cos
f [Hz]
z
y
x
ideal
isotropic
radiator
Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
/4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4
/2
y
x
z
z
simple
dipole
directed
antenna
sectorized
antenna
Antennas: diversity
Antenna diversity
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
/4
/2
/4
/2
/2
/2
ground plane
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication
possible
Interference range
signal may not be
detected
signal adds to the
background noise
sender
transmission
distance
detection
interference
Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
Receiving power proportional to 1/d in vacuum much more in real environments
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
shadowing
reflection
refraction
scattering
diffraction
Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses
signal at sender
signal at receiver
Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts
Additional changes in
distance to sender
obstacles further away
power
long term
fading
Multiplexing
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
space (si)
channels ki
k1
time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
t
c
t
s1
s2
t
s3
Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination
necessary
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
works also for analog signals
k6
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard spaces
t
Time multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high even
for many users
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
Disadvantages:
precise
synchronization
necessary
t
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
Code multiplex
Each channel has a unique code
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages:
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
good protection against interference and
tapping
Disadvantages:
lower user data rates
more complex signal regeneration
Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
medium characteristics
Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
digital
data
101101001
digital
modulation
analog
baseband
signal
analog
modulation
radio transmitter
radio
carrier
analog
demodulation
analog
baseband
signal
synchronization
decision
digital
data
101101001
radio receiver
radio
carrier
Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
1
very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference
more complex
robust against interference
Example of MSK
1
0
bit
data
even
0101
even bits
odd
0011
odd bits
signal
value
hnnh
- - ++
low
frequency
h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
high
frequency
MSK
signal
t
No phase shifts!
10
11
00
01
t
11
10
00
01
0001
0000
I
1000
Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T stream
High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
Example: 64QAM
good reception: resolve the entire
64QAM constellation
poor reception, mobile reception:
resolve only QPSK portion
6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
LP uses remaining 4 bit
10
I
00
000010
010101
interference
spread
signal
power
signal
detection at
receiver
spread
interference
f
Side effects:
coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
tap-proof
dP/df
i)
user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference
ii)
f
sender
dP/df
dP/df
dP/df
iii)
iv)
f
receiver
v)
f
narrowband channels
4
frequency
narrow band
signal
guard space
channel
quality
spread
spectrum
frequency
many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
Advantages
reduces frequency selective
fading
in cellular networks
tb
user data
0
1
tc
chipping
sequence
01101010110101
Disadvantages
XOR
=
resulting
signal
01101011001010
user data
X
chipping
sequence
transmit
signal
modulator
radio
carrier
transmitter
correlator
received
signal
demodulator
radio
carrier
lowpass
filtered
signal
products
X
integrator
sampled
sums
data
decision
chipping
sequence
receiver
Two versions
Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
Advantages
frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages
not as robust as DSSS
simpler to detect
td
f3
slow
hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f2
f1
f
td
f3
fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f2
f1
t
user data
modulator
modulator
frequency
synthesizer
transmitter
received
signal
hopping
sequenc
e
spread
transmit
signal
narrowband
signal
demodulator
frequency
synthesizer
hopping
sequenc
e
data
demodulator
receiver
Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain
transmission area (cell)
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
Advantages of cell structures:
Problems:
Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side
(GSM) - even less for higher frequencies
Frequency planning I
Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base
stations
Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f4
f3
f5
f1
f2
f3
f6
f7
f2
f4
f5
f1
Frequency planning II
f3
f1
f2
f3
f2
f3
f1
f3
f1
f2
f3
f2
f3
f1
f3
f1
f2
3 cell cluster
f3
f2
f4
f3
f6
f5
f1
f2
f3
f6
f7
f5
f2
f4
f3
f7
f5
f1
f2
7 cell cluster
f2
f2
f2
f1 f
f1 f
f1 f
h
h
3
3
3
h 2
h 2
g2 1 h3
g2 1 h3
g2
g1
g1
g
1
g3
g3
g3
3 cell cluster
with 3 sector antennas
Cell breathing
CDM systems: cell size depends on current load
Additional traffic appears as noise to other users
If the noise level is too high users drop out of cells