Contents.

Chapter.

1
2
3
4
5
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7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Basic Radio Theory.

Communications.
Automatic Direction Finding ( ADF ).
VHF Omni-Directional Range ( VOR ).
Instrument Landing System ( ILS ).
Basic Radar.
Cathode Ray Tube ( CRT ).
Distance Measuring Equipment ( DME ).
Air Traffic Control Radio Beacon System ( ATCRBS ).
Radio Altimeter.
Airborne Search Radar ( ASR ).
Area Navigation ( RNAV ).
Global Positioning System ( GPS ).
Ground Proximity Warning ( GPWS ).

VHF Omni- Directional Radio

Range ( VOR ).

Summary For VOR.

Frequency

VHF range 108 MHz to 117.95 MHz 150

channels. 108 MHz is used for testing the VOR system.
108 MHz to 112 MHz shared by ILS.

VOR
ILS

:
:

Transmission

Range

Emission

Even first decimals : 108.20 Or 108.25 MHz.

Odd first Decimals : 108.30 Or 108.35 MHz.

Horizontally polarized radio wave. This Polarization is

not greatly affected by static noise.

Terminal VOR ( TVOR ) has a range of 100 NM. An

en-route VOR has a range of 200 NM. The VOR
transmission is a Direct Wave and is Line Of Sight.

A9W.

Summary For VOR.

Identification

Accuracy

Types

The VOR identifies every 10 seconds.

If there is no Identification, the VOR
can not be used even if the
indications appear to be correct.

A Total Of 4 error may be seen on

the instrumentation. Only 1 degree
of this error is allowed for the ground
station, the remaining 3 degrees is
allowed for the aircraft equipment.

TACAN only provides DME but no

bearing information to civilian
aircraft. A VORTAC is a combination
of a VOR and A TACAN providing
information to both civilian and
military aircraft.

Aircraft Equipment For VOR.

VOR Receiver.

VOR Antenna.

Course Deviation Indicator ( CDI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

VOR Receiver.

Aircraft Equipment For VOR.

VOR Receiver.

VOR Antenna.

Course Deviation Indicator ( CDI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

VOR Antenna.

Aircraft Equipment For VOR.

VOR Receiver.

VOR Antenna.

Course Deviation Indicator ( CDI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

Course Deviation Indicator.

Aircraft Equipment For VOR.

VOR Receiver.

VOR Antenna.

Course Deviation Indicator ( CDI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator.

Principal Of Operation.

VOR Determines Bearing information by Comparing the

Phase Angle between two signals. These two signals are
called.
Reference Signal

Omni Directional continuous wave

transmission on the stations
allocated frequency.
It carries the 9960 Hz
identification and reference
modulation.
The signal is Frequency Modulated
at 30 Hz.

Variable Signal

Directional signal transmitted on

the stations allocated frequency.
Rotates at 1800 RPM or 30 times a
second and is called a Limacon.
The signal is apparently Amplitude
Modulated at 30Hz.

Principal Of Operation.
The principal of operation is Bearing determination by
means of Phase comparison.
The following terminology is used in VOR operations:
Radial

A track that is radiated away from the VOR station.

QDR -

Magnetic track from the station.

Brg

Bearing

Crs

Course.

Trk

Track.

Reference Signal
Variable Signal
31
5

45

270

5
13

22
5

90

180

CDI Operation.
The CDI consists of the following components :

Omni Bearing Selector (OBS ) and Display

Window.

The OBS is used to select the required

Radial to fly.

Course Deviation Indicator.

CDI Operation.
The CDI consists of the following components :

TO / FROM indicator.

The TO / FROM indicator indicates whether the pilot has

selected a Radial that will take him toward the VOR
station or
away from the VOR.
Note : It will not indicate that the pilot is Flying toward or away
from the station.

Course Deviation Indicator.

CDI Operation.
The CDI consists of the following components :

Course Deviation Bar or Needle.

The LEFT / RIGHT Deviation Needle is a Command

instrument, it will tell the pilot which way to fly. Always follow The
Needle.

Course Deviation Indicator.

CDI Operation.
The CDI consists of the Following Components :

Angular Dot Calibration Scale

The Dot Scale Represents the angular displacement in

degrees from the selected radial. Indicators have either 5
dots, 4 dots Or 2 dots. The full scale deflection from the centre of
the scale to the last dot is always 10 Degrees
for
a VOR.

Course Deviation Indicator.

CDI Operation.
Rules for CDI operation :

The CDI is Not heading sensitive.

The aircraft heading must be within 90 either

side of the selected radial.

If you are on the same side of the station as the

selected radial you will see a FROM flag.

Use Variation at the station as the work is done

at the station.

Do not use Deviation with a VOR as an aircraft

compass is not used for any calculation.

CDI Operation.
Use this sketch to solve CDI questions

FROM

TO

SET OBS

Station
TO

FROM

CDI Calculations.
An aircraft is heading 340 magnetic at 30 Nm from a VOR
station on a Bearing of 142 magnetic. The pilot has
selected the 146 magnetic bearing on the OBS. What is
the indication on a 5 dot VOR CDI ?

CDI Operation.
An aircraft is heading 340 magnetic at 30 Nm from a VOR station on a
Bearing of 142 magnetic. The pilot has selected the 146 magnetic
Bearing on the OBS. What is the indication on a 5 dot VOR CDI ?
A ) FROM Flag
B ) Two Dots Fly Right

056
FROM

TO

326

Station
TO

FROM
236

142

146

CDI Calculations.

An aircraft is heading 065 magnetic and has the OBS set

to 095 magnetic. The Left / Right Needle of a 5 dot CDI is
3 dots left of centre with TO indicated. The aircraft is on
what radial ?

CDI Operation
An aircraft is heading 065 magnetic and has the OBS set to 095
magnetic. The Left / Right Needle of a 5 dot CDI is 3 dots left of centre
with TO indicated. The aircraft is on what Radial ?
A ) Radial 269
005
FROM

TO

275

9
6
2

095

Station

TO

FROM
185

CDI Calculations.

An aircraft is heading 045 magnetic and is on a True

Bearing of 135 Variation at the station is 8 east and
Variation at the aircraft is 10 east. If the OBS is set to
315. What would the indication on a 5 dot CDI be?

CDI Operation.
An aircraft is heading 045 magnetic and is on a True Bearing of 135.
Variation at the station is 8 east and Variation at the aircraft is 10
east. If the OBS is set to 315 what would the indication on a 5 dot CDI
be?
A ) TO Flag
B ) Four Dots Fly Left

225
FROM

TO
135

8
7
12

315

Station

TO

FROM
45

RMI Operation.

The compass card shows the aircraft compass heading

under the lubber line.
The VOR Pointer shows the angle measured clockwise
from the nose of the aircraft to the station, known as the
Relative Bearing.
Remember with a VOR only the Variation at the station
must be used. Deviation is not required as the instrument
will automatically compensate for this error.

Radio Magnetic Indicator.

RMI Operation.
Compass Heading.
Re
la

tiv

eB

VOR
Station.
Head Of The Pointer Indicates
QDM Tail Of The Pointer The QDR
Or Radial. Note The Compass Card
Must Work Otherwise The VOR
Needle Will Not Point To The Station
Magnetic Heading
+

Relative Bearing
QDM

060
+

300
360

ea
rin
g.

VOR Errors.

Site Errors

Propagation Errors

Interference Errors

Aircraft Equipment

Cone Of Ambiguity

Caused by buildings, obstacles

uneven ground in the vicinity of
the station.
The VOR signal is affected by uneven
terrain enroute to the aircraft. This is
called Scalloping.
Caused by two stations on the
same frequency being received by
the aircraft.
Total error of 4. One degree for the
transmitter and three degrees for
the instrument. On a Dual Pointer
RMI the total error is 6 between the
two needles.
A VOR transmits in a Horizontal
plane up to 70. This leaves an area
of 40 overhead with no signal.
When an aircraft overflies the VOR it
will receive no signal and the VOR
Will not show any navigation
information.

VOR Test Facility ( VOT ).

CDI Calibration

360 Radial

OBS Set 360

004 To 356 FROM
OBS 180Set
184 To 176 TO

RMI Calibration
184 To 176
Station
180 Radial

VOR Exam Questions.

These are some of the more difficult
questions found in the CAA exam.

Twin pointer VOR RMI question.

Max range of two VOR stations.

1 in 60 rule.

Leading and lagging of the two VOR signals.

Twin Pointer VOR RMI.

A VOR and a NDB are co-located on an aerodrome where

the Variation is 17 west. An aircraft is flying where the
Variation is 19 west on a magnetic Bearing of 332 from
the VOR station. What are the VOR and ADF readings on a
twin pointer RMI ?
Identify the question.
Write down the formula.
Make the sketch accurately.

Twin Pointer RMI.

A VOR and an NDB are co-located on an aerodrome where the
Variation is 17 west. An aircraft is flying where the Variation is 19
west on a magnetic Bearing of 332 from The VOR. What are the
VOR and ADF readings on a twin pointer RMI ?
TB VAR = MB
315 + 17 W = 332
Remember on a RMI the needles
point toward the station.
315

180

= 135 True

17 W

Remember the RMI indications are magnetic so

add or subtract the correct variation:
ADF at aircraft , VOR at station.
ADF = 135 True

19 West

= 154

VOR = 135 True

17 West

= 152

315

Max Range Of Two VOR Stations.

VOR GGV and PEV are 161 Nautical Miles apart. Both VORS
are on the same frequency and are 200 feet AMSL what is
the minimum altitude that an aircraft would be able to
receive both the VORS ?
Identify the question.
Write down the formula.
Make the sketch accurately.

Max Range Of Two VOR.

VOR GGV and PEV are 161 Nautical Miles apart. Both VORS are on the
same frequency and are 200 feet AMSL what is the minimum altitude
that an aircraft would be able to receive both the VORS ?

Flight level

GGV

Aircraft must be halfway

between stations

161 Nautical Miles

PEV

Maximum Theoretical Range

Calculation.
VOR GGV and PEV are 161 Nautical Miles apart. Both VORS are on the
same frequency and are 200 feet AMSL. What is the minimum altitude
that an aircraft would be able to receive both the VORS ?

Range ( Nm ) 1.25
80.5 Nm 1.25

Tx Height in Feet 1.25

200 Feet 1.25

Rx Height in Feet

80.5 ( Nm ) ( 1.25 14.14 ) ( 1.25

80.5 ( Nm ) 17.68 ( 1.25
80.5 ( Nm ) - 17.68 1.25

62.83

1.25

Rx Height in Feet

Rx Height in Feet

Rx Height in Feet )

Rx Height in Feet )
Rx Height in Feet

Flight Level 2526 Feet

1 In 60 Rule.
A VOR DME defines the centre of an airway 10 Nautical Miles
wide. An aircraft At distance 180 Nautical Miles has a two dot fly
left indication on a 5 dot CDI. What is the distance from.
A)
B)

Track Error
60

The centre of the airway.

The boundary of the airway.

Distance Off
Distance To Go

1 In 60 Rule.
A VOR DME defines the centre of an airway 10 Nautical Miles wide. An
aircraft at distance 180 Nautical Miles has a two dot fly right indication
on a 5 dot CDI. What is the distance from.

Track Error
4
60
720
60

Distance Off

60

180 NM

= Distance Off
=

Distance Off

Distance To Go
A ) Distance from centre = 12 NM
B ) Distance from boundary = 7 NM

12 NM

5 Nautical Miles
5 Nautical Miles

180 NM

4
GGV

Leading And Lagging Of VOR

Signals.
If the Variable Signal of a VOR lags the Reference Signal by 40. What is
the Bearing To the VOR.
Note : The Reference Signal can never
lead or lag it is a reference.
The Bearing is thus 40
but that is away from the
station i.e. Radial.
To get the Bearing TO the
station 180 must be added
or subtracted.

Reference
Signal

40
Variable Signal

Leads
Lags

The Bearing To The Station:

40 + 180 = 220

Leading And Lagging Of VOR

Signals.
With an OBS set to 090 on a VOR CDI and the directional signal lagging
the reference signal by 280. What will the indications on the CD be?
Note : This is a CDI question and thus must be solved using the method
given.
360
FROM

TO

270

090

Station
TO

FROM
180

Leading And Lagging Of VOR

Signals.
With an OBS set to 090 on a VOR CDI and the directional signal lagging
the reference signal by 280. What will the indications on the CD be?
Note : The Reference Signal can never
lead or lag it is a reference.

Variable Signal
280

Reference
Signal

Leads
Lags

The Bearing from the station:

= 280

Leading And Lagging Of VOR

Signals.
With an OBS set to 090 on a VOR CDI and the directional signal lagging
the reference signal by 280. What will the indications on the CDI be?
Note : This is a CDI question and thus must be solved using the method
given.
360
280

FROM

TO

270

Station
TO

To Flag.
5 Dots Fly Right.

090

FROM
180